GASTRONOMY A TOURISM LURE
EXPLORING THE CONSIDERATIONS FOR A POLICY DECISION AND THE IMPACTS ON
CROSS-SECTOR INTERACTIONS

A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of:
Master of Rural Development

OF

BRANDON UNIVERSITY, MANITOBA, CANADA
Faculty of ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

NAME: Davio Robinson
STUDENT #:
SUBMISSION DATE: April 2020
NAME OF ADVISER: Doug Ramsey, PhD.
COMMITTEE MEMBERS: Kenneth Bessant, PhD.; Christopher Malcolm, PhD.

i

Acknowledgement
Completing this study was both rewarding and demanding. Beyond the personal struggles that
my family and I have been through; I have been extremely satisfied with the outcome of this document.
The vision for this paper could not have been realized without the efforts of my research participants for
which I am truly grateful for your input. With that said I would like to take this opportunity to thank, all
three contacts from the Ministry of Industry, Commerce, Agriculture and Fisheries who have made I
possible for making contact and executing the survey as well as facilitating a follow-up request for
information. Special thanks go out to the Ministry of Local Government and Community Development,
who was the first to respond to the survey questions and within a timely manner. I would also like to
acknowledge The Ministry of Tourism, The Ministry of Transport and Mining, The Planning Institute of
Jamaica, the Saint Catherine Municipal Corporation, the Saint James Municipal Corporation, the Saint
Thomas Municipal Corporation, the Portland Municipal Corporation, and the Westmoreland Municipal
Corporation.
I would like to highlight the efforts of the Chief Executive Officer from the saint Mary Municipal
Corporation, Miss. Ethlyn Douglas who has been instrumental in assisting in the provision of the contact
information for the CEOs of the targeted Municipal Corporations; your efforts will never be forgotten. To
the President of the Jamaica Co-operative Automobile and Limousine Tours Ltd, the president and all
other representatives/members and staff of the Jamaica Hotel and Tourist Association, and Dr. Copeland
Stupart; I would like to thank you all for pushing through and supporting this research by taking the time
out of your busy schedule to contribute to this research, making it successful. Also, I would like to express
my heartfelt gratitude in being recognized as a suitable candidate, twice, for the 'Manitoba Rural
Development Scholarship in Rural Development (master’s degree) through the Department of Economic
Development and Training Manitoba Agriculture, Food and Rural Development. Also, I would like to say
ii

thank you to my advisor for support me throughout the project by sourcing and providing various
opportunities that not just impact me and my studies positively, but his efforts have greatly contributed
to my family.
Finally, I will close by saying thanks to my father who has assisted in partly editing my research
paper and for his usual insights that have been valuable in setting up the structure of my research. And to
my lovely wife and children for their understanding, support and sleepless nights, your contribution to my
success come from your continued support.
Thank you all!

iii

ABSTRACT
For many years, tourists have become more interested in learning about the culture of people,
including their way of living, cuisine, religious customs, historical occurrences, architecture, and
agricultural practices. Tourists have also long craved for new experiences that would give them a total
package that includes the traditional ‘tourist gaze’, and more recently, an improved sensory
experience, appealing to their taste and smell. Gastronomy has been that viable option for tourism
development (Özdemir et al., 2017, Pérez Gálvez et al., 2017, and Sormaz et al., 2016), an increasingly
important aspect of cultural tourism. It not only takes into consideration the uniqueness of a dish but also
includes activities such as food festivals, the observation of the production process-from preparation to
the consumption stage, and culinary training activities. In fact, Özdemir and Seyitoğlu (2017, 1) have
illustrated that “the authenticity of local food and its presentation may be one of the dominant attributes
that have an effect on the perceptions of tourists who are motivated to travel by gastronomical
attractions.” These facts together with the increased focus on gastronomy by the Ministry of Tourism,
Jamaica; has inspired this research paper to: 1) Identify the key factors that drive the need for
diversification of the tourist product in Jamaica; 2) understand the nature of the transition from traditional
tourist lure (white sands and beaches) to the neology of Gastronomy/ Cultural tourism; 3) understand the
meaning of this change in the eyes of the government sector versus the private sector; 4) understand who
is pushing this new focus for gastronomy as a policy decision for Jamaica's tourism sector; and, 5)
understand how this new initiative have impacted cross-sector policies such as transportation,
infrastructure and agriculture to name a few.

iv

Contents
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................................ ii
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................................... iv
Contents ........................................................................................................................................................ v
CHAPTER........................................................................................................................................................ 8
1.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................................... 8
1.1.1 Tourism and the Caribbean with focus on Jamaica ..................................................................... 9
1.3 RATIONALE FOR STUDY ..................................................................................................................... 10
1.3.1 Objectives................................................................................................................................... 11
1.3.2 Research Questions.................................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................................................. 13
2.0 BACKGROUND TO THE PROJECT/LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................ 13
2.1 Culture, Heritage, Agri-Tourism and Cultural Tourism ..................................................................... 16
2.1.1 Defining Culture, Heritage, Culture Heritage, Agri-Tourism, and Cultural Tourism .................. 16
2.1.2 Typologies of Cultural and gastronomical Tourist ..................................................................... 17
2.1.4 Agri-tourism and its impacts on Cultural Tourism and Gastronomy ......................................... 24
2.2 GASTRONOMY AS A LOCAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVE ................................................ 42
2. .4 STRATEGIC ALLIANCES AND DESTINATION BRAND DEVELOPMENT ............................................... 50
2.5 Closing Statement and Way forward ................................................................................................ 53
CHAPTER 3 .................................................................................................................................................. 55
3.0 METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................................................... 55
3.1 OVERVIEW/RATIONALE..................................................................................................................... 55
3.2 GEOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................... 56
3.2.1 JAMAICA ..................................................................................................................................... 56
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3.3 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH ........................................................................................................ 58
3.4 SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS AND ADMINISTERING RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS ............................. 60
3.4.1 Government Sector .................................................................................................................... 61
3.4.2 Private Sector ............................................................................................................................. 62
3.5 RECRUITMENT ................................................................................................................................... 63
3.5.1 Disseminating and the conducting of interviews and questionnaires ....................................... 63
3.6 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS.................................................................................................... 64
3.7 Limitation .......................................................................................................................................... 65
CHAPTER 4 .................................................................................................................................................. 68
4.0 Overview ............................................................................................................................................... 68
4.1 RESEARCH FINDINGS ......................................................................................................................... 70
4.1.1 Assessing the Knowledge of Gastronomy .................................................................................. 73
4.1.2 Assessing the viability of gastronomy ........................................................................................ 75
4.1.3 Who stands to benefit and what are the other opportunities that Jamaica can benefit from . 80
4.1.4 Establishing and designating Gastronomic Centres ................................................................... 86
4.1.5 Cross-policy Interaction between Government Entitles and the Private Sector based on the
Policy Direction of the Ministry of Tourism. ....................................................................................... 88
4.1.6 Understanding the Ministry of Tourism’s plan for Jamaica’s Gastronomy ............................... 90
4.1.7 Appreciation of Sectorial Impact ............................................................................................... 93
4.2 Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 106
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................................................ 110
5.1 Discussion ............................................................................................................................................ 110
5.2 Accommodation .............................................................................................................................. 114
5.3 Employment .................................................................................................................................... 121
5.4 Visitor Satisfaction Study ................................................................................................................ 124
vi

5.5 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY......................................................................................................... 127
5.6 PROJECTED PROJECT OUTCOMES AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................... 128
5.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS ................................................................................................................. 131
5.8 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 138
5.9 APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................................ 148
5.9.1 TRI-COUNCIL POLICY STATEMENT 2: CORE CERTIFICATE ............................................................ 148
5.9.2 BRANDON UNIVERSITY’S LETTER OF ADVICE OF ETHICS APPROVAL ........................................... 149
5.9.3 BRANDON UNIVERSITY’S ETHICS CERTIFICATE FOR RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN PARTICIPANTS
.............................................................................................................................................................. 150
5.9.4 SAMPLE RECRUITMENT LETTER SUBMITTED TO RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS ............................... 151
5.9.5 SAMPLE OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT USED FOR THE ONLINE SURVEY ............................... 153

vii

CHAPTER 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
Travel for amusement, relaxation, knowledge transfers and the experience of a new place has
long been the practice of the Egyptian Pharos (Gyr 2017, 5); however, it was not until the 19th century that
this expedition was coined ‘tourism’ (Linda Lorentzen, 2001). As noted above, tourism has its roots
embedded in the exploration of new places but, for this document, more emphasis will be placed on
destination experiences.
One can argue that most traditional tourism exploration focuses generally on scenery and the
enjoyment of orchestrated mini-cultural bites. In the past decade or more, tourists have become more
interested in the culture of the people, from their way of living to include but not limited to 1) Food (local
Gastronomy); 2) Religious customs (esp. in the case of Indigenous people – being that of
meditation/spiritual, health and wellness); 3) Historical occurrences (colonization and independence); 4)
Architecture (Ruins of the past and historical designs); 5) Agricultural Practices (knowledge-based tourism)
to name a few; to the experience that they would have garnered by being apart of a 'total package' (i.e.
experiencing the culture through re-enactment and being among the people in their community). This
neology, based on the understanding of the researcher, has been the focus of the shift in tourism policies,
practices, product development and the marketing strategies used to generate interest. One may very
well say that to deny this reality of the shift in focus is to deny one’s country from being competitive and
marketable.

8

1.1.1 Tourism and the Caribbean with focus on Jamaica
According to the United Nation’s World Tourism Organization (2017), the year 2016 has been the
seventh consecutive year of sustained growth in international travel; for which tourist arrivals grew by 3.9
per cent amounting to 1,235 million tourists partaking in international travel. In essence, there has been
300 million more international travel for tourism as compared to the pre-crisis record in 2008 which
accounted for 928 million tourists (UNWTO 2017, Vol. 15 cited in Jamaica Tourist Board 2017, Viii).
Jamaica, like many other Caribbean islands, prides itself on a myriad of picturesque scenery from
natural features such as waterfalls, beaches, lush landscapes to name a few; to the nice warm tropical
climate; exotic foods from varying cultures; to a variety of heritage sites, which has always attracted
visitors from across the globe. In support of this fact, the Caribbean Tourist Organization reported that
there was a continued demand for the Caribbean region due to its diversity concerning authentic cultural
experiences, and other encounters that are relaxing, refreshing, and enjoyable. These pull factors saw a
4.2% increase or 29.341 million tourists in 2016 when compared to 2015 with a figure of 28.154 million
tourist arrival (Jamaica Tourist Board, 2017). According to the Planning Institute of Jamaica’s review of
economic Performance, January 2017 – March 2017 media brief; the real value-added for hotels and
restaurants grew by 0.3%, accounting for the increased stopover arrivals from Europe and Canada as
arrivals decreased from tourist from the United States of America [a major Tourist Sector] (Planning
Institute of Jamaica, 2017).

9

1.3 RATIONALE FOR STUDY
In addition to the above, and with the focus of the research being set on Jamaica’s gastronomic
experience. The researcher has noticed that in more recent times, there appears to be a change in interest
in the traditional lure of tourism from the sun, sand, and sea as the main focus for travel; to a renewed
focus on cultural tourism in the form of gastronomy1. This increased desire may be attributed largely to
the more recent development of the internal road networks, allowing for travel time from north to the
South coast, to be significantly reduced, fostering free and quick movements between parishes. This, in
turn, allows the tourist to explore other non-traditional destinations within the island that not only gives
them the usual exposure (sun, sand and sea) but also opens up the experience to the local culture which
includes gastronomic experiences and other forms of tourism; namely the healing hot springs from
geothermal activities in St Thomas (Health and Wellness), to the succulent taste of Jerk pork/Chicken with
festivals, served along with the natural Coconut water in Boston, Portland (Boston Jerk and the annual
Boston Jerk Festival).
With that said, in a public relation release by the Ministry of Tourism, Jamaica on Wednesday,
August 10, 2016, entitled “Talking Points for Minister of Tourism, the Hon. Edmund Bartlett, at the
Tourism Linkages Network Strategy Session”; the Ministry had outlined five pillars for tourism growth
which includes: a) Tapping into new markets, b) Developing new products, c) Promoting investment, d)
Building new partnerships, and e) Developing human capital (“Talking Points for Minister of Tourism”,
2016). In listing the five pillars for tourism growth, the Minister indicated that the Ministry will be focused
on seven networks which underpinned the above pillars with one of the main foci being the exploration

1

A form of cultural tourism that has as its main focus, the exploration of the culture through the diet of the
people.

10

of Gastronomy as a new tourism product. This new emphasis on gastronomy has been one of the main
focuses not only to overseas tourist but also to local patrons with the 13-year-long annual event known
as ‘Restaurant week’; which is traditionally held in Jamaica around or close to black Friday.
Separate and apart from the increased interest in gastronomy as a tourism driver, there is a
concern of whether, this new focus will impact the daily operation of other key government entities based
on the fact that this new policy decision may require additional support to effectively monitor activities
that may arise from the increase of tourist and tourism facilities. These Key government entities that were
being referred to are the Ministry of Industry, Commerce, Agriculture and Fisheries (MICAF), the Ministry
of Health and Wellness, the Ministry of Local Government and Community Development (MLG&CD) and
its corresponding Municipal Corporations (M.C), and the Ministry of National Security (MNS) to name a
few. In addition, the goal to improve on the tourism offering in bringing more visitors to this destination,
makes Jamaica’s approach to using gastronomy as policy directive an important strategy in achieving
growth in the industry and by extension meeting the National goals 1 and 3 as well as the National
outcomes 2,4 and 12 of Jamaica’s VISION 2030 – National Development Plan (“Vision 2030 Jamaica.
Popular version”, p. 16)

1.3.1 Objectives
Therefore, and in keeping with the above information to pursue gastronomy as a tourism strategy
for Jamaica by the Ministry of tourism. This research seeks to a) Identify the key factors that drive the
need for diversification of the tourist product; b) understand the nature of the transition from traditional
tourist lure (white sands and beaches) to the neology of Gastronomy/Cultural tourism, b.i) to explore how
the idea of gastronomy became the new focus and how has it evolved, b.ii) to determine if this transition
was a policy (government) driven or business-oriented approach; c) understand the meaning of this
change in the eyes of the government versus the private sector, c.i) to identify the impact of tourism policy
11

on other Sectors (namely but not limited to Transportation and infrastructure, Employment (formal and
Informal), Accommodation).

1.3.2 Research Questions
Subsequently, in an effort to ascertain a better understanding of the impact of gastronomy
concerning the above objectives; the following research questions were formulated to extract meaning
from the assessment and analysis of the data (both primary and secondary) that will be gathered. The
questions that need answering are: who is pushing the idea of Gastronomy as a tourism driver? How has
this concept impacted on cross-sector policies? What does this mean for the local farmers? Would this
push or revitalize the industry or a) will they use imported products, b) would they focus on a mixed
market approach, c) If options (a) or (b) was the case, how does authenticity of the product fare out in
keeping with the true meaning of gastronomy? Also, what aspect of gastronomy was the nation focused
on?

12

CHAPTER 2

2.0 BACKGROUND TO THE PROJECT/LITERATURE REVIEW
Internationally, the tourism sector has seen a prodigious growth in the industry within last
decade, which is in keeping with the projected 1.6 billion global arrivals expected in 2020 (UNWTO, 2018
cited in Chiriko, 2020, p. 1). This initial forecast was 0.2 billion less than Dana Pop’s (2016) projection in
her “Cultural Tourism: Theoretical Article”, suggesting that UNWTO/UNESCO (2015) anticipated an
expected 1.8 Billion of international tourist arrivals by 2030 (Pop, 2016, p. 220). This interest in travel has
been coupled with an increased desire for immersing one’s self in the culture of a people, with a specific
interest in the diet of the people (Kristensen et al., 2017; Šimić et al., 2016); slowly shifting away from the
traditional excursion to benefit from the 3S’s sun, sand and sea (Kivela et al., 2006; Lane et al., 2013; Šimić
et al., 2015; Sormaz et al., 2016).
This turning point away from the traditional theme as well as other segments of the industry
has largely been influenced by the uniqueness of the cultural offerings by each destination, inspiring
visitors to return each year (OECD, 2009; UNWTO, 2012, cited in Chiriko, 2020). With the increased
interest in cultural tourism, there is still the matter of understanding what constitutes cultural tourism
and how has it impacted the tourism market. To build the tourist product for Jamaica through gastronomic
experiences as one of the main drivers, it is imperative to have a fair grasp of the factors and the
implications for this new venture. Understanding the mind of the tourist and what they are looking for,
will be very useful in determining how one develops this product, and in ensuring that consumer(s) (both
local and international), have a value-added experience when visiting the destination of choice (Pérez
Gálvez et al., 2017, p. 604; Ingram et al., 2017, p. 13; Yang, 2016, p. 19; Alebaki et al., 2015, p. 98). In other
13

words, it is inferred that those who feel satisfied with the experiences gained, will more likely be inclined
to revisit a destination after returning home (Yang et al. 2016; Özdemir et al., 2017; Pérez Gálvez et al.,
2017). Also, one should not look at tourism as being a benefit only to the international market, but rather
it should be seen as a co-benefit for locals and the diaspora; being that the industry provides a benefit for
everyone whether economical or otherwise. As Wearing and Wearing (2017) explores the experiences of
the tourist, they venture into the realm of the urban tourist with a view of understanding their spatial
behaviour - hoping that their interactions would have illuminated “ways in which the tourist experienced
the places and people whom they visited” – for which they hypothesized that this approach was
“fundamental to the study of the consumption of the tourist” (p. 97).
People are not only travelling for the benefit of experiencing another country’s culture or as
an escape from the daily routine of the work world (Stoykova 2015; Gyr 2017; Lane et al., 2013 and
Özdemir et al. 2017). On the contrary, some travel to reconnect or refresh themselves, with their own
culture (in the case of the diaspora). In keeping in mind, the above concepts, and to achieve the objectives
of this research. It is imperative to have a good grasp of a few key terminologies and concepts that will
aid in guiding the content of this document. Also, and in formulating a meaningful discussion around the
analysis and evaluation of the data obtained from this research. This chapter will be explored in three
sections that will focus on several thematic areas, to build a platform for discussion. These thematic areas
are a) gastronomy as a Local Economic Development initiative; b) authenticity and its role in product
development; and c) strategic alliances and destination brand development. These themes were selected
based on the focus of this study. With tourism patterns changing along with the increase in travel intrest
in the caribbean, it was important for this study to focus on the three themes mentioned earlier, to
illustrate the rational for making changes in the tourism startegy for Jamaica. Before exploring these
thematic areas, the terms ‘culture’ and ‘Heritage’ along with the concepts of ‘cultural tourism’ and ‘Agritourism’, will be examined to create a logical understanding of the setting that will be used in the
14

aforementioned thematic areas, whilst providing applicable examples that can be used to enhance the
country’s efforts in their tourism ventures.

15

2.1 Culture, Heritage, Agri-Tourism and Cultural Tourism
2.1.1 Defining Culture, Heritage, Culture Heritage, Agri-Tourism, and Cultural Tourism
The term ‘culture’ has a variety of complex and overlapping meanings (Olwell, 2016),
especially when juxtaposed with the term ‘heritage’. Originating around 1430, in its Latin origins meaning
“cultivation” or “tending the soil”; the term culture has seen a transformation to what Anthropologist
have now defined as “the sum total of ways of living built up by a group of human beings and transmitted
from one generation to another” (Tharp, 2009, Olwell, 2016; and Dictionary.com, 2020). Dana Pop (2016)
has complimented this definition by further expounding on what is included in the expression ‘sum total’
stating, as she referenced Hofstede (1997), that “culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge,
experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religions, notion of time, roles, spatial
relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possession acquired by a group of people in
the course of generations through individual and group striving” (Pop, 2016, p. 220). Going by both
definitions as expressed above, it is evident that the paradigm for the term ‘culture’ is far-reaching and
inclusive. It has transitioned throughout time, taking on new forms and norms as it improves on its
substance whilst it progresses. Its symbolism, as stated by Linnekin (1997) as referenced by Yang et al.
(2011) is constructed, and its representation not only reflects but constitute its reality (Duncan, 2001 cited
in Yang et al., 2011, p. 562). Whereas ‘heritage’ according to Hyung Park (2010), is a sign or symbol of
ethnicities, nationalities, and identities (p. 117). In referencing Macdonald (2006, p. 11), Park in her article
“Heritage Tourism: Emotional Journeys into Nationhood”, further expounded on the definition of the term
‘heritage’ stating that it is seen as a “material testimony of identity; a discourse and set of practices
concerned with the continuity, persistence and substantiality of collective identity” (Park, 2010, p. 116).
Observing the difference between the terms culture and heritage, it is clear that the phrases ‘sum total’
16

and ‘cumulative deposits’ as well as ‘material testimony’ are very important in understanding the
difference between the two terms, being that one is a collection of the other. Besides, it is also clear that
though they are distinct in their meaning, they both complement each other. The understanding of these
key terms is critical in exploring the dichotomy of ‘cultural tourism’ and that of ‘heritage tourism’ as they
are often misused or misrepresented.
Therefore, when observing the tourist who embarks on exploring the culture of a people
through various cultural representations as part of cultural tourism. It must be understood firstly that this
activity differs from the traditional recreational tourism in the sense that, it seeks to understand or
appreciate the place(s) being visited as opposed to reproducing a desirable need for enjoyment based on
an idea of a holiday getaway from home (Pop, 2016). Dana Pop (2016) in referencing the International
Council on Monuments and Sites’ (ICOMS)- International Scientific Committee on Cultural Tourism,
defined “cultural tourism” as an activity that enables people to experience the way of life of others,
gaining a first-hand understanding of their customs, traditions, intellectual ideas, and those places of
cultural significance to name a few (Pop, 2016, p. 220). It is for this very reason that scholars have sought
to address the matter of understanding the tourist and the tourist typologies, so as to make a more
meaningful contribution to the tourism literature especially as it pertains to cultural tourism (MacCannell,
1976; Hjalager, 2004; Pop, 2016 and Özdemir et al., 2017).

2.1.2 Typologies of Cultural and gastronomical Tourist

Earlier in the introduction of this chapter, it was mentioned that understanding the mind of the
tourist and what they are looking for, will be very useful in determining how one develops the tourism
product, whilst ensuring that consumer(s) (both local and international), have a value-added experience
when visiting the destination of choice (Pérez Gálvez et al., 2017, p. 604; Ingram et al., 2017, p. 13, Yang,
17

2016, p. 19; Alebaki et al., 2015, p. 98). This statement leads us to the point of understanding the tourist
typology especially as it pertains to cultural tourism, particularly that which focuses on gastronomy. In
keeping with the above discourse and in examining various aspects of the literature, it was identified that
in determining the characteristics of a cultural tourist, a multifaceted approach would have to be taken
to bring into context the best description of the activities that will influence the interest of the individual.
Fanny Vong (2016) in her article “Application of Cultural Tourist Typology in a Gaming Destination –
Macao”, explored the definition of a cultural tourist in a broad sense as being an individual who visits
cultural and heritage sites, festivals, places of architectural significance and theatres to name a few, whilst
being away from their home (p. 951). In referencing Jansen-Verbeke and Van Rekom (1996), it was
suggested that ‘empirical knowledge of the actual pull factors, the behavior (sic) patterns on-site and,
above all, the visitor’s appreciation of the urban tourist opportunity spectrum’ was lacking, which lead to
a broad understanding of the cultural tourist’s desire being homogeneous tying back to what Vong started
within her definition (Vong, 2016, 364). On the other hand, and with the increase in tourist typology
studies, this homogeneity was refuted by McKercher and du Cros (2003), who identified varying degrees
of interest that motivated each type of cultural tourist (McKercher and du Cros, 2003).
Like others before, much of the literature on cultural tourism, including that of Fanny Vong, have
referenced Bob McKercher and Hilary du Cros’ (2003) article on “Testing a Cultural Tourism Typology”.
The authors had successfully identified five typologies of the cultural tourist, where they posited that
these typologies “represent[ed] five benefit-based segments” namely a) the purposeful cultural tourist2,3,
b) the sightseeing cultural tourist 1,4, c) the casual cultural tourist3,5, d) the incidental cultural tourist3, 6, 7,

2

Learning about the culture or heritage if others is a major reason for their visits.
These tourists generally tend to have a deep experience
4
These tourists generally tend to have a shallow experience
5
Cultural tourism reasons play a limited role in the decision to visit
6
Cultural tourism plays no meaningful role in the decision-making process.
7
Person will participate in cultural tourism activities
3

18

and e) the serendipitous cultural tourist 2,4,6 (McKercher et al., 2003, pp. 45 & 47). Their work relied on a
framework that used marketing theory to design a model around ‘centrality of purpose and depth of
experience as the core dimensions’ (McKercher et al., 2003, p. 45). According to McKercher et al. (2003),
even though ‘centrality of purpose’ and ‘depth of experience’ were the main variables used in determining
the five types of the cultural tourist, “trip motivation, activity preference and cultural distance factors”
were

influential

indicators

that

were

reflective on these two
variables (McKercher et
al., 2003). McKercher
and

du

Cros

used

marketing theory as a
guiding

principle

developing

for
the

segments of cultural
tourism which state that
“every market consists
of groups and segments
of

customers

different

needs

with
and

Table 2 - 1: Illustrating the cultural tourist typology according to Mckercher and du Cros
(2003)

wants” (Kotler,1999 cited in McKercher et al., 2003). Therefore, if customers who react in a homogenous
way to market activities or via the benefits they are seeking can be grouped based on the theory (Sollner
and Rese, 2001 cited in McKercher et al., 2003, p. 45), the cultural tourism market should not be any
different as hypothesized by McKercher and du Cros (2003, p. 45). Their study challenged the traditional
19

tourism research approach that viewed the cultural tourism market as an ‘undifferentiated market’ which
assumed that ‘all cultural tourist seeks to have a deep cultural experience and are highly motivated by
cultural reasons’ (McKercher et al., 2003). This position is flawed based on the unpredictable nature of
the average tourist and for the fact that each traveller has their reasons for travel, which was highlighted
by McKercher and du Cros’ typology (see table 2-1). According to McKercher and du Cros’ research, there
are many facets to the cultural tourist with varying interest levels and expected outcomes of their trip.
For example, it was noted that the purposeful cultural tourist was not just motivated by deep cultural
experiences but also found interest in the opportunity for personal development. The casual tourist was
not a “superficial consumer of culture”, they wanted as part of their trip some amount of refreshment,
recreation, and replenishment in their trip (McKercher et al., 2003, p. 55). What was profound in their
study, was the fact that despite the varying reasons for travel and irrespective of a cultural tourist type, it
was reiterated that majority of the tourist were on vacation and emphasis was placed on the fact that
these tourists wanted an enjoyable experience. This revelation influenced their recommendation that
“cultural tourism must be presented in a manner that is enjoyable, easy to consume and, although it may
contain an element of learning, must first seek to entertain” (McKercher et al., 2003, p. 57; Kivela et al.,
2006, p. 356; and Lane et al., 2013, p. 17).
Following Kotler’s (1999) marketing model, McKercher and du Cros illustrated how cultural
tourists can be grouped based on interest and trip motivation to name a few. In keeping with this concept
and applying the same principle, it was noted that Hjalager (2004) and Boyne et al. (2003) also produced
their own typology however, this was based on the gastronomical interest which became the central
theme. Hjalager’s (2004) model as referenced by Özdemir et al. (2017) divided tourist into four categories
being that of recreational, diversionary, experimental, and existential. According to Hjalager, the
recreational and diversionary tourist prefer familiar food in their travels for which food was not a strong
motivation for their travel like that of the ‘casual’ and ‘incidental’ tourist in McKercher and du Cros’s
20

model, where convenience was critical for their experience and food was secondary (Hjalager, 2004 cited
in Özdemir et al., 2017, p. 3). The recreational tourist, however, fell more on the conservative side of food
consumption whereas the diversionary tourist relied on familiarity which brings comfort in their food
consumption (Özdemir et al., 2017). On the other hand, as it pertains to the experimental and existential
tourist, their interest is within food consumption, and this is the main reason for travel or as coined by
Quan and Wan (2004) as the ‘peak dimension’ in their excursion. The difference between the two lies in
the fact that experimental tourist looks at what is trending as opposed to the existential who focused on
learning about the culture of the people through their diet. Destinations that seek to lure tourist through
food, must be so sensitive to this fact, finding ways to strike the balance, whilst providing the environment
for educating, entertaining, and satisfying the appetite of their visitors.
Boyne et al. (2003), like Hjalager, described four typologies of the tourist which had a similar
construct like Hjalager and McKercher and du Cros in the sense that it ranged from a passive state to that
of deep experience. Unlike Hjalager, Boyne’s typology focused on the search for information (Boyne et
al., 2003 cited in Özdemir et al., 2017). In his model, the Type 1 tourist actively searched for information
about local food consumption opportunities (Boyne et al., 2003) resembling that of the existential tourist
who sought to learn about the local diet. The Type 2 tourist, according to Boyne et al. (2003) passively
searches, evaluating as they part take in the meal, like that of the experimental who sought out food
trends. Finally, Types 3 and 4 tourists - like Hjalager’s recreational and diversionary tourist, and McKercher
and du Cros’s casual and incidental tourist – does not consider any search for information on food;
however, the Type 3 tourist may partake in passive food events as observers when they stumble on them
(Boyne et al., 2003 cited in Özdemir et al., 2017). Özdemir et al. (2017) observed that, despite the efforts
to capture what the tourist experience would have been based on physiological factors8, cultural factors9,

8
9

Including taste, health, and freshness to name a few
Learning a new culture, authentic experiences, the symbolic meaning of food

21

social factors10 and psychological factors11 which were considered to be the main factors that influenced
the tourist in consuming local food. Neither Hjalager’s nor Boyne et al.’s typology addressed the
authenticity of the food and the impacts it had on tourist food consumption behaviour (Özdemir et al.,
2017, pp. 2-3).

2.1.3 Pros and Cons of Cultural Tourism the Challenge of Commodification
Looking beyond the tourist typology and refocusing on the destination; it should be noted
that tourism at times, creates a social situation that allows the host destination to alter their indigenous
culture to suit the demands of the tourist, resulting in what is known as staged authenticity (Yang et al.,
2016, p. 29). Pop’s (2016), article on cultural tourism, carefully highlights both the pros and cons of cultural
tourism by deconstructing the terms culture and heritage, looking into its influences and the possible
impacts (both positive and negative) on the host community and by extension country. What the
researcher have found to be powerful about her approach was that whilst exploring the varying avenues
that can be offered through cultural tourism, she was able to differentiate heritage tourism from cultural
tourism and was capable of connecting both as a beneficial collaboration. Separate from a clear
demarcation for the varying types of tourism as referenced earlier. She was able to chart the case for the
use of culture as a tourism tool when she incited that, “the responsible use of cultural assets for tourism
purposes” can aid in the alleviation of poverty, through employment opportunities which may also reduce
rural to urban migration (Pop, 2016). This influence on population movement would ultimately have a
positive impact on that of local communities, especially the rural communities. These local communities
would have a renewed focus for their community, restoring a form of civic pride and a sense of belonging
as they re-establish their historical makeup where possible. There is also the benefit of knowledge

10
11

Status, prestige, togetherness, meeting new people.
Escape from routine, exciting experiences, etc.

22

transfer, especially that of indigenous knowledge, building awareness of the way of life for the culture on
display (Giampiccoli et al., 2012). Additionally, as referenced by Pop (2016), tourism in general, can set
the pace for “appreciation, promotion and conservation of tangible and intangible heritage” (p. 220).
In identifying the tourist typology, and with the emphasis being placed on ensuring that cultural
tourism is presented in a manner that is enjoyable, easy to consume and should first seek to entertain
before it teaches; opens the room for ‘creative destruction’12 of the local culture/heritage. Claire Halpern
and Clare Mitchell (2011) suggested that post productive rural spaces that are in search of an identity to
maintain relevance, may create heritage-scapes13 (p.209). The challenge with this is that as the product
takes shape and if they are not careful, the original heritage-scape may be replaced by a leisure-scape
should the idea of economic growth be the dominant focus (Halpern et al., 2011, p. 209). Pop (2016)
supports this claim but in another way, by illustrating that poor management can produce negative
impacts on the sector, the culture, and the people who should be benefiting from it. Such impacts as
suggested by Pop are but not limited to “physical deterioration, pressure for inappropriate development,
traffic congestion, environmental degradation, income inequality within the local community, damaging
the long-term sustainability of the tourism sector” (Pop, 2016, p. 220). One of the main challenges with
commodification is that it tends to create a composite representation of the culture of the people, for
which in some indigenous populations are regarded as a ‘dying breed’ or an extinct culture (Yang et al.
2011; Yang et al., 2016). In other cases, minority cultures are type classed and classified as uncivilized.

12

“Coined by Joseph Schrumpeter (1943) the phrase was used to depict the fate (destruction) of existing
economies following the introduction (creation) of revolutionary innovations” (Halpern et al., 2011, 209).
13
A type of space that may reflect profit, growth promotions, and preservation motives (Mitchell and de Waal,
2009)

23

2.1.4 Agri-tourism and its impacts on Cultural Tourism and Gastronomy
As expressed earlier in this chapter, tourist travel for varying reasons and based on their respective
motivations for travel, it was thought that the best way of understanding these experiences was to group
similar interests and motivations, creating a typology that would help host destinations and researchers
understand the dynamics of the individual tourist and the rising market trends; with agri-tourism being
identified as one such trend. Considering the increased desire to experience the culture of another
through local cuisine, coupled with the focus of host destination in meeting this demand, Testa et al.
(2019) has observed a paradigm shift in the local food movement positing that this movement “is part of
the contemporary social movements aiming to change the global agricultural landscape by altering the
way we understand and interact with the food systems. Its main goal is focused on shortening the distance
between producer and consumer which are also used to increase the social, economic and environmental
sustainability of the food systems, and to strengthen the cultural identity of the territories” (Testa et al.,
2019, p. 1; Green et al., 2008, p. 149). They further included that an emerging component of this
movement was that of culinary tourism. Like Sormaz et al. (2016), Testa et al. (2019) described culinary
tourism as a “leisure pursuit”, incorporating “visits to local producers, food fairs, farmer’s markets,
cooking demonstrations, and any food-related tourism activity” most of which is also offered through agritourism (Testa et al., 2019, pp. 1-2; Sormaz et al., 2016, p. 727). Green and Dougherty, on the other hand,
has brought into perspective the relationship between food, tourism, culture and heritage, exploring how
local food systems provide the opportunities to promote the local cuisine and other agricultural product,
based on the comparative advantage that a particular region may have in using agriculture and local
cuisine as a tourist attraction (Green et al., 2008; Giampiccoli et al., 2012).
In expanding on the above notion of using agriculture and local cuisine as a tourism attraction, it
should be understood that though the practice is not new (Busby et al., 2000; McIntosh et al., 2001; Chase

24

et al., 2018), agri-tourism as a concept to encourage tourist to visit a farm, especially for tourism purposes,
has been an emerging concept that has taken shape around the mid twenty-first century (Chase et al.,
2018, Busby et al., 2000). However, as Opperman (1995) argued, agri-tourism has been difficult to define,
largely because it meant something different based on the region as well as the range of activities that
are associated with it (Chase et al., 2018, Busby, 2015). This lack of a comprehensive definition has
hindered the process of developing a solid theoretical framework, inevitably reducing the volume of
research that should have been published in this emerging area of the tourism literature (Opperman,
2015, Busby et al., 2000). Outside of the above shortcomings, this sector is the seen as an effective means
of supporting local economies (Testa et al., 2019; Giampiccoli et al., 2012; McGehee et al., 2004; Chase et
al., 2018; Busby et al., 2000) whilst preserving the culture and heritage of the community being
showcased. Giampiccoli and Kalis illustrated how Agri-tourism, when used as a local community-based
tourism initiative, gave life to emerging economies in South Africa. The case study by Boonzaaier and
Philip indicated that there were great opportunities for community members to provide food and
associated services to the Visitor Motses14. It was suggested that this example could play an important
role in achieving the underlining principles and objectives established by the community-based tourism
development approach (Giampiccoli et al., 2012, pp. 101-102) for South Africa. Giampiccoli and Kalis in
citing multiple sources were able to show how local (indigenous) food played a critical role not only in
tourism but also in building the communities and promoting locally grown food; especially in the
preservation of culture and heritage (Heywood 2011; Quan and Wang, 2004; Mak et al., 2012 cited in
Giampiccoli et al., 2012, pp.102 – 103). Their article emphasized multiple uses of local food and its impact
on health and wellness and the wider community; “pointing out the relationship between food practices

14

Motse: meaning homestead; was developed by the Limpopo provincial government in 2003 to be used as
accommodation purposes for tourist (Boonzaaier and Philip 2007, p. 27 cited in Giampiccoli et al.2012, pp. 101 &
116)

25

and well-being” drawing on the example of the “Māori tribes where customary and contemporary food
practices are densely embedded within wider patterns of daily life, environmental relations and cultural
identity” (Giampiccoli et al., 2012, p. 102).
In referencing Heywood (2011), who “indicated that ethnopharmacology15, biodiversity,
agriculture, health, food, and nutrition are all inextricably interconnected” (Giampiccoli et al., 2012;
Giampiccoli and Kalis examined how changes in diet, resulting from the turning away from local food that
was high in fiber and taking on a more westernized diet (high in energy and low in fiber) has caused
unfortunate circumstances leading to obesity; which has been influenced by globalization and social
changes to name a few (Giampiccoli et al., 2012). With the move to revive locally grown products, not
only would it aid in making locals healthy, it would also aid in re-educating the youths on the intrinsic
value and uses of local food; which supports Mak et al., (2012, p. 192) position which calls for destination
marketers to make an effort to revitalize the local food traditions, especially as a tourist attraction
(Giampiccoli et al., 2012, p. 103). Another example of the impact of agri-tourism was identified in Ćurčić
and Pavlović’s article entitled “Development of the Tourist Product on the Farms – Case Study”. The
examples of ‘farming tourism’ (which is seen as a “tourist offer on farms in Vojvodina16, highlighting
specific patterns of traditional agricultural holding that creates a characteristic segment of rural tourism”)
and how they have been successful in promoting the “authentic rural offer of Serbia” (Ćurčić et al., 2011),
was also useful in showing how agri-tourism can impact culture, heritage, and cultural tourism. According
to the authors, the Serbian experience is accommodation based and is situated in a ‘preserved historical
ambient environment’ for which visitors come in contact with the way of life of the people, evoking the
‘Spirit of the past’ (Ćurčić et al., 2011. pp. 129 - 130). One of the more critical examples that made this

15

The scientific study of substances used medicinally, especially folk remedies, by different ethnic or cultural
groups (Dictionary.com, 2020).
16
A Serbian province located in the Northern section of the country.

26

successful in the eyes of the authors was how the equipment, the layout, and the general atmosphere
played a huge role in reviving the traditional isolated farm which raised the level of Serbian rural
authenticity (Ćurčić et al., 2011).

2.1.4.1 Defining Agriculture and Agri-tourism.
Consequent, to the above examples of the impact of agri-tourism on culture and cultural tourism,
the question of ‘what is Agri-tourism’ is yet to be answered. However, before attempting to define Agritourism, it is important to understand the meaning of agriculture. According to Robinson (2004) as
referenced by Phillip et al. (2009) “‘agriculture’ can be defined as the activity of rearing of animals and the
production of crop plants through the cultivation of the soil for consumption and sale as food and other
commodities” (p. 755). The adoption of this definition was based on the fact that it establishes “a
boundary between activities that are traditionally based on farms but are not agricultural (e.g., horse
riding, food processing) from those that are agricultural (e.g., harvesting crops)” (Phillip et al., 2009,
p.755). This was useful in putting into perspective, the definitions that have surfaced around Agri-tourism
being that so many have surfaced with varying outlook. Also, with the ambiguity around a common
understanding of what constitutes to ‘Agri-tourism’ getting an understanding of the term by
deconstruction helps with the process of finding a suitable definition which inevitably leads to the solution
of adequately defining this indefinable term.
Like ‘authenticity’ and as referenced in the above paragraph, the definition of the term agritourism can also be classed as an elusive concept, being that it varies across regions. The challenge with
the literature surrounding agri-tourism was that, although the industry appears to be growing, there was
no clear, all-inclusive definition largely because its composition differs according to geographical location
(Clarke, 1996b; Schilling et al., 2012; Opperman, 2015; Chase et al., 2018; Busby et al., 2000; McGehee et
al., 2004; Testa et al., 2019). What the literature had revealed, however, was that each region recognized
27

‘Agri-tourism’ by a different terminology, for example, it is referred to as Agri-tourism in Australia, Farm
Stays in Europe, Vacation Stays in North America – Mainly the United States, Farm-tourism in New Zealand
and Australia, Farming Tourism in Serbia, Agro-tourism in Romania, and Visitor Motse in South Africa all
of which is used to describe activities that allow the tourist to break away from the usual urban routine
to explore and experience rural life on active farms or within rural spaces (Chase et al., 2018; McGehee et
al., 2004; Busby et al.,2000; McIntosh et al., 2001; Ollenburg et al., 2007; Marian, 2017; Giampiccoli et al.,
2012; and Ćurčić et al., 2011). However, as positioned by Chase et al. (2018), and McGee et al. (2004);
Busby and Rendle (2000) had chronologically listed over thirteen definitions that have surfaced since
1974. Based on their research, what was evident was that as the years’ progress, the definitions had taken
on additional activities, possibly with the view of being as inclusive and comprehensive as possible, which
supports Cooperman’s claim on the instability of the field of study.
Despite the obvious shortcoming in adequately capturing all the right components that would
properly define this type of tourism. In taking a deeper look into the collection of definitions that Busby
and Rendle compiled, what they all had in common in their definition, was the fact that they were all on
‘working farms’, that had expanded their operations to accommodate visitors who may be disconnected

28

from this type of setting (see Table 2-2). However, where they differ in definition rests with the emphasis
that is placed on the associated activity that goes along with the normal farm routine (see Busby and
Rendle, 2000, p. 636). For example, DART (1974) and Hoyland (1982) included the presence of some
recreational activity on the working farms, whereas Frater (1983), Murphy (1985) and the Wales Tourist
Board (1986) included in their definition the idea that agri-tourism is a supplementary activity to the
primary activity which is the working farm. Denman and Denman (1990), Denman (1994 a,b), Roberts
(1992) and Davies and Gilbert (1992) expressed in their definition that guests were able to take part in
farming activities, however, the difference with Roberts’ definition from the rest was that Robert
emphasized that the tourist were ‘visibly away’ from their comfort zones, as they took part in on-farm
activities. As for Pearce (1990), farmers were actively engaging in the “small scale tourism venture”
themselves – becoming a part of the show. Unlike Denman and Denman (1990), Denman (1994 a, b),
Roberts (1992) and Davies and Gilbert (1992); Clarke (1996) identified that tourist had limited interaction

Table 2-2: Excerpt from Busby and Rendle (2000) showing a chronology of definition for agri-tourism

29

with the farm activities, with their experiences seen as a means of rest and relaxation – a get-away
experience. Whereas Weaver and Fennel (1997) combined the ideas that incorporated rural enterprises
both within a working farm environment and a commercial tourism component. Lastly, Ilbery et al. (1998)
conceptualized farm tourism as an “Alternate Farm Enterprise” (AFE) which was one of several paths to
farm business development.
Like Busby and Rendle’s chronological listing, Phillip et al. had also been able to compile a list of
definitions however, these were based on the varying terminologies that floated around in the agritourism literature according to the region that was under review. Again, a closer look at the definitions
compiled by Phillip et al. (2010) revealed that most of the definitions referenced in table 2-3, saw the
presence of a working farm as being the main driving force as well. However, the difference was that some

Table 2-3: Excerpt from Phillip et al. (2010) showing a collection of definition for agri-tourism based on the terminology used that veered
from the label of ‘Agritourism’ (p.755)

30

had active contact with the farm life and others were passive. In addition, some identified the associated
activities as being likened to rural tourism (Which also includes agri-tourism as a component) whereas
others just identified tourism activities in broad terms that took place on farmlands. Despite the wavering
definitions over the course of time, McGehee and Kim adopted Weaver and Fennell’s (1997) definition of
Agri-tourism which is described as “rural enterprises which incorporate both a working farm environment
and a commercial tourism component” (p. 357 as referenced by McGehee et al., 2004, p. 162). This
definition, as referenced by Testa et al. (2019) has described agri-tourism as a “farm that combines
agricultural production with a component of rural tourism” (p. 2). McGehee and Kim saw that ‘Agritourism’ was subsumed under rural tourism like any other tourism activity that takes place within the
rural setting such as eco-tourism and other nature-based tourism activities as an example (McGehee et
al., 2004, pp. 161-162); thus, the reasons for their adaptation of Weaver and Fennell’s articulation of Agritourism. With this revelation, it is the view of the researcher that this definition would be able to
somewhat capture most of the critical components of the industry whether it be passive in contact or
active, on an active farm or on agricultural holdings.

2.1.4.2 Understanding the Motivations for establishing Agri-tourism.
Going by the above definition of agri-tourism and contrasting it against the literature that explores
the motivations for using agriculture as a tourist attraction by local farmers and government bodies alike
(Busby et al., 2000; McGehee et al., 2004; Chase et al., 2018; Testa et al., 2019); what was evident was
the fact that other from the contribution to local economic development as well as the preservation and
revitalization of local traditions - much of what was used as reasons for using agriculture as a tourism
driver - revolved around the fact that agri-tourism was seen as a reliable method for generating additional
income (Busby et al., 2000; McGehee et al., 2004; Marian, 2017; Daugstad et al., 2013; Testa et al., 2019).
In fact, in as much as other reasons existed as strong motivations such as educational reasons, being useful
31

for the utilization of the agricultural holdings (especially for other rural tourism activities like hiking,
horseback riding, nature trail, hunting etc.), being a hobby for retired farmers, and preserving cultural
heritage (like that of the Vojvodina farming tourism in Serbia) to name a few (McGehee et al., 2004; Ćurčić
et al., 2011; Daugstad et al., 2013; Chase et al., 2018; Testa et al., 2019). Much of the articles that were
reviewed positioned agri-tourism as a supplementary source for farm income especially when agricultural
yields were low (McGehee et al., 2004; Chase et al., 2018; Ollenburg et al., 2007). Ollenburg et al. (2007)
gave clear examples of agri-tourism as a supplementary source for farm income in their paper entitled
“Stated Economic and Social Motivations of Farm Tourism Operators”. Their study identified over 600
businesses in Australia that qualified as a farm tourism enterprise for which only 282 participated. What
the study identified was the fact that “they (the farmers) needed an additional income source hence, the
pursuit of tourism on their farms. Though economic reasons drove the focus for tourism, the study also
highlighted that the social aspects of a tourism business were also important in motivating some of the
farmers in farm-tourism. Below are some of the responses from Ollenburg et al. ‘s study that formed the
basis of the above analysis:
‘We wanted interested people to have the opportunity to see what life was
like on an outback cattle station, to experience the realness of our way of
life. Secondly the extra income would be welcome.’
AND
‘I wanted to work for myself, work from home so I could be there for my
children. I like the role of farmer and showing guests the animals and the
outdoors entertaining. The farm does not provide sufficient income
(drought problems) so alternative income is necessary. Currently just a big
debt but project is long-term to secure my future (single parent).’”
32

Outside of the aforementioned reasons, and from what was described in the literature, scholars
and government officials saw both agri-tourism and rural tourism as an effective tool for promoting and
preserving rural spaces, livelihood, culture, heritage, and local economies (McGehee et al., 2004;
Ollenburg et al., 2007). This is against the background that rural tourism would have been the broad
umbrella that “accentuates the importance of the supply management and marketing activities within
rural areas” (Lee and Stanciulescu, 2011, p. 15 cited in Marian, 2017). What is important to note, however,
was that Ollennburg’s study recognized that “neither income nor social motivations were uniformly
dominant across all Australian farm tourism operators. Various landholders have dissimilar motives, and
many individual operators have multiple motives” (Ollenburg, 2007, pp. 449-450) see excerpt below:
“For full-time operators, tourism is secondary to farming, and may be
abandoned if financial returns from farming improve [sic]. For part-time
farmers, tourism is a substitute for off-farm income; if farming conditions
improve, they may continue tourism but abandon off-farm employment.
Retirement and lifestyle farmers are generally unable to capitalize on
improved farming conditions; tourism is their main income even when
farming conditions are good. Lifestyle and retirement farmers may both have
strong attachments to particular places: through family history, to give their
children a rural upbringing, or because they enjoy farming. They still need
incomes [sic] to live on, to maintain the property, and to pay rates and land
taxes; but generally not to pay off capital costs. They use tourism to support
a farm lifestyle” (SIC)
(Ollenburg, 2007).

33

In comparing the Australian experience with other international cases, reference was made to Montana
and Virginia from the United States that ranked income above social motivations (Ollenburg, 2007, p.
450). For Saskatchewan in Canada, in citing Weaver and Fennell’s (1997) study, Ollenburg et al. noted that
of the 40 participants that responded, 47 motivations were listed as reasons for establishing vacation
farms for which 27 of the selected responses were income-related and 16 were attributed to social
factors.
With the knowledge that gastronomic tourism provides direct and indirect employment as well
as financial support to rural communities (Sormaz et al. 2016; Giampiccoli et al., 2012; Marian, 2017), and
along with the fact that culture is becoming an important motivator for tourism excursion especially as it
concerns culinary tourism and more specifically Agri-tourism. The focus on local food and beverages, as
one of the better ways to experience the local culture of host destinations (Testa et al., 2019; Giampiccoli
et al., 2012), have created an avenue in the establishment of local (food) brands for communities,
countries and by extension regions (Testa et al., 2019; European Commission, 2020, 8 May). With this in
mind and along with the focus on local economic development especially, those that were centred around
the preservation and revitalization of local traditions, as tools for promoting and preserving rural spaces,
livelihood, culture, heritage and local economies. The motivations for employing agri-tourism as a tourism
driver can be categorized in broad economic terms (Evan and Ilbery, 1989 as cited in McGehee et al., 2004,
p. 162) namely “macro” and “micro” economics. These motivations are based on whose perspective is
being considered and for what purpose. For example, when large corporations like the government or
international bodies are directly involved in the process, these motivations can be considered as coming
from a macro-economic perspective and the level of focus will be geared toward increasing economic
output on a large scale or for the preservation of culture and heritage of a destination or region, or both.
Whereas, when it comes from small independent, self-sufficient farmers where the main focus relies
34

heavily on the product offered; not with the intension of building a regional product but as a means of
supplementing income, educating patrons on a small scale to name a few (Testa et al., 2019, p. 2); these
establishments can be considered as operating at a micro-economic level.
From the macro-level, this motivation brings into focus how smaller farm systems (at the microeconomic level) are incorporated into the political sphere of Agri-tourism, to the point where the
showcasing of culture and heritage becomes the main focus (McGehee et al., 2004, p. 162). At the macro
level, policies and procedures are developed for the protection and regulation of how the industry should
operate – giving incentives to the smaller farm systems, keeping them in check to preserve the quality of
the product offered (Giampiccoli et al., 2012; Daugstad et al., 2013; Chase et al., 2018, p. 15; Testa et al.,
2019, p. 2; European Commission, 2020, 8 May). One notable example of economic and cultural
motivation at the macro level was illustrated in the case of the European Union (EU) through the branding
of agricultural and other products based on their unique offerings. The EU established a promotional
policy in 2014 for agriculture and food product known as quality schemes, aimed “at protecting the names
of specific products to promote their unique characteristics, linked to their geographical origin as well as
traditional know-how” (“Quality Schemes Explained”, n.d.; European Commission, 2020, 8 May).

35

This promotional policy sought to improve
competitiveness and consumption of EU products
outside of the EU (European Commission, 2020, 8
May). There are two (2) main categories that are
used within the quality scheme namely the
Geographical Indications (GI) and the Traditional
Specialty Guaranteed (TSG) designation. GI protects
the name of a product originating from a specific
region which follows a particular traditional process
whereas TSG designation highlights the traditional
facets that are likened to the process of production

Figure# 2- 1: The Official Seal of the EU’s quality
schemes used in branding products with the focus of
protecting intellectual property rights and preserving
the culture and heritage of a destination.

or the composition of a product; without any linkages to any specific geographic location (European
Commission, 2020, 8 May). Under the GI designations, which also includes the Protected Designation of
Origin (PDO) and the Protected Geographical Indication (PGI); food, agricultural products and wine must
either be entirely17 processed and prepared in a specific region or have at least one of the stages of the
production18 processing being from the region (“Quality Schemes Explained”, n.d.). Therefore, based on
the information provided on quality schemes, Chase et al. (2018) and Testa et al. (2019) both gave
examples of two EU countries that have had PDOs and PGIs and TSGs designations establish for products
that are unique to their destination, namely France and Italy. These tourist destinations have had their
product’s brand traced back to their place of origins irrespective of where they are sold such as France’s
well-known Champagne and Cognac as well as Italy’s Asiago, Gorgonzola, and Parmigiano-Reggiano
cheeses as notable examples (Cawley et al., 2002; Chase et al., 2018; Testa et al., 2019). This was one clear

17
18

In the case of the PDO
In the case of PGI

36

example of motivations from a macro level promoting localization in the global marketplace (Crawley et
al., 2000). Cawley et al. (2002) label this as “glocalization” which is defined as investigating localization
and its intersection with the global marketplace in the context of the promotion and marketing of rural
tourism activities (p. 66). This careful link between local producers and the tourism sector, builds that
trust of the local industry, creating a brand that promotes rural tourism and local culture.

2.1.4.3 Typologies and Activities of Agri-tourism
To this point, the literature has indicated that agriculture and local cuisine has become an
important pull factor for tourist, in visiting farms and rural scapes as a means of an escape away from
urban living to enjoy the scenery, and all that is offered by rural spaces; inevitably aiding in preserving the
culture and heritage of the host community (Testa et al., 2019; Giampiccoli et al., 2012; McGehee et al.,
2004; Chase et al., 2018; Busby et al., 2000). However, as mentioned earlier in this chapter under section
2.1.2, understanding the mind
of the tourist and what they
are looking for, will be very
useful in determining how one
develops the tourism product
(Pérez Gálvez et al., 2017, p.
604; Ingram et al., 2017, p. 13,
Yang, 2016, p. 19; Alebaki et
al., 2015, p. 98). That being

Figure 2-2: Illustration of Phillip et al.’s (2009) typology for defining agri-tourism.

said, outside of the fact that agri-tourism differs in definition and terminology - based on geographic
location and its associated activities - what was evident was that there are many similar activities or
components of the industry that allow for authors such as Clarke (1996b), Busby et al. (2000), Chase et al.
37

(2018), Ilbery et al (1998), Phillip et al. (2009) and others to identify and establish general typologies that
were used in classifying and defining the agri-tourism industry. Phillip, Hunter and Blackstock (2009)
devised a simple flowchart, as seen in figure 2-2, to aid researchers in defining agri-tourism based on
whether the associated activities fit within specific categories at varying levels. With this knowledge and
in using Kotler’s (1999) Market Theory that states “every market consists of groups and segments of
customers with different interest”; Agri-tourism, when grouped according to the associated activities that
the tourist will engage over time and across regions, becomes more recognizable and easier to define.
One of the first indications of a typology was identified in the variations of terminologies used in
diverse regions. For example in Australia it is referred to as ‘Agri-tourism’, ‘Farm Stays’ in Europe,
‘Vacation Stays’ in North America – Mainly the United Stated, ‘Farm-tourism’ in New Zealand and
Australia, ‘Farming Tourism’ in Serbia, ‘Agro-tourism’ in Romania, and ‘Visitor Motse’ in South Africa; all
meaning something different but having a common link to the agricultural industry (Chase et al., 2018;
McGehee et al., 2004; Busby et al.,2000; McIntosh et al., 2001; Ollenburg et al., 2007; Marian, 2017;
Giampiccoli et al., 2012; and Ćurčić et al., 2011). Separate and apart from the variation in terminology, in
taking a closer look at the definitions used to describe this aspect of tourism as referenced in tables 2-2
and 2-3, especially as it pertains to gastronomic pursuits (see section 2.1.4.1), it was evident that the term
‘working farm’ was frequently cited in most of the definitions. The fact that emphasis was placed on
tourism activities taking place on active farms, makes it an important criterion for researchers to consider
when investigating agri-tourism types. However, there are instances where agri-tourism activities were
carried out on non-working farms, but still had that connection with the agricultural theme qualifying it
as being part of the agri-tourism industry and not being another arm of rural tourism on its own merit.
This example ties back to Phillip et al.’s (2009) rationale for adopting Robinson’s (2004) definition of

38

agriculture, since it brought into perspective, the contact that a visitor may or may not have within rural
spaces based on the nature of the tourism activities that are conducted on agricultural holdings.
Since some visitor’s interaction may
seldom interact with the active farm, Phillip,
Hunter and Blackstock (2009) suggested that the
“tourist contact with agricultural activity can be
separated into three types (namely): direct
contact19,

indirect

contact20,

contact21”;

making

clearer

and
the

passive

role that

agriculture plays in the tourist experience (Phillip
et al., 2009, p. 754). In exploring agri-tourism
elements that are considered to have passive
contact, Phillip et al. (2009) separates their
discussion based on two categories namely nonworking farms and working farms passive

Table 2-4: Excerpt from Busby and Rendle (2000) illustrating
Farm tourism types along with varying associated activities
according to Clarke (1996a, b)

contact, agri-tourism (p. 756). Non-working farms, that includes “agricultural heritage and imagery”
showcasing the past and present agricultural practices; creating a historical timeline through the ages
(p.756), are likened to that of the Vojvodina farming tourism in Serbia (Ćurčić et al., 2011. pp. 129 - 130)
and the Visitor Motse in South Africa (Giampiccoli et al., 2012, pp. 101-102). Other types of non-working
farm activities that were included but were not limited to the following were farm heritage attractions,
horse riding that takes place on converted farms, farmers market and farmland access to name a few. This

19

Indicating a tangible element in the tourist experience
Indicating a secondary connection through contact with agricultural produce
21
Indicating a common ground (agricultural holding) between two independent variables (Tourism and
Agriculture)
20

39

notion was supported by Clarke’s (1996a, b) typology as referenced by Busby and Rendle, for which Busy
and Rendle grouped the varying types of ‘farm tourism elements’ according to broad headings namely
accommodation, amenities, rural access, activities, permanent attractions, and event-based attractions
(see table 2 - 4) (Busby et al., 2000, p. 637). Since these activities more or less were connected with the
agricultural space or having some connection with the agricultural heritage, they were able to be classed
as agri-tourism types as opposed to being considered as rural tourism activities (Phillip et al., 2009). In
contrast to the examples of non-working farms with passive contact, Philip et al. explained that the only
difference with ‘working farms’ that passive contact, was the fact that the working farm provided the
basis of the experience but went no further with the relationship between tourism and the agricultural
sector. McGehee et al. (2004) gave clear examples of this which included “farm stays, bed-and-breakfasts,
pick-your-own produce, agricultural festivals, farm tours for children, or hayrides” (p.162). These activities
were being supplementary to the farm industry and were used as a means of generating additional income
(Phillip et al., 2009; McGhee et al., 2004; Testa et al., 2019).
In exploring the aspect of indirect contact on working farms, this level of interaction had
considered agricultural components being closely intertwined with tourism activities; in the sense that
the consumption of local food by the tourism market was provided through local farms (Phillip et al.,
2009). A clear case of this scenario is in the case of the Morden Corn and Apple Festival for which over
50,000 cobs of corn are provided to patrons of the event, which were harvested by the local farmer and
community volunteers each morning before the event started (Knight, 2019)22. On the level of having
direct contact, Phillip Hunter and Blackstock (2009) described this in two perspectives being that of staged
authenticity and authentic in experience. This was based on the premise that the tourist experience would
either be based on live actual demonstrations by the farmer in the case of farm tours (staged) or where

22

More details will be provided in chapter 5

40

visitor actively participate in whatever farm activity was present (Phillip et al., 2009), entering into what
Goffman (1959) termed the front and backstage, for which “he suggests that people use impression
management to sustain a performance that fits the requirements of a particular situation” (Yang et al.,
2016, p. 17).
Like Phillip et al.’s
(2009) perspective of the
typology

of

agri-tourism,

Chase et al. (2018) Sought to
develop

a

conceptual

Figure2-3: Chase et al. (2018) example of their Core and Peripheral Tiers activities for
Agri-tourism

framework for the industry.
However, unlike Phillip et al.
their concept was based on
grouping activities into two tiers
namely core or peripheral (see
figure 2-3), and distributing
these activities across five broad
themes (see figure 2-4) that did
not distinguish between levels of
interaction with the activity like
Phillip et al. (2009), but rather
based them on the focus of the
activity or the exposure that was
given – whether it be based on

Figure 2-4: Chase et al. (2018) five categories of Agri-tourism based on their Core and
Peripheral concept

41

an educational component; geared toward direct sales; done for the benefit of entertainment; for
hospitality; or for outdoor recreation (Chase et al., 2018, p.18). This approach in adopting a
core/peripheral perspective was based on the type of activities that took place and “the location (whether
on farms vs off farms), or the relative degree to which the activity was connected to agriculture” (Chase
et al., 2018, p. 17). They saw core activities as being generally accepted in being considered as agri-tourism
activities as opposed to the peripheral activities that were deemed “controversial” (Chase et al., 2018).
Their work supported what Phillip et al., Busby et al., Clarke sought to establish but took it a little further
by seeking to sanitize those activities that were relevant to the sector; whilst lowering the priority of those
that were claimed by association with the agricultural environment (see figure 2-4). Though Phillip et al.
(2009) and Chase et al. (2018), whose work was almost a decade apart, varied based of principles, the
core of what was used to guide each framework was the association of tourism with agricultural activities.
Besides, both concepts can be infused as a general guiding factor in the sense that Chase’s model could
be seen as a general guiding principle whereas Phillip’s model could be used in describing specific cases
in identifying the level of association and interaction that the tourist may have in their gastronomical
experiences.

2.2 GASTRONOMY AS A LOCAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVE
With the understanding that tourism in general has its obvious benefits and conversely its
respective challenges. When managed properly, the creation of a delicate balance in the industry enables
the local market to develop, fostering an environment for growth. With the interest now place on cultural
tourism in more recent times and that of culinary tourism otherwise known as gastronomy. More
destinations will be seeking to use the attractiveness of this rapidly growing component of cultural tourism
as a new addition to their tourism offerings. Uner (2014) as referenced by Sormaz et al. (2016) supported
this idea by illustrating how intense and complex marketing of destinations have become based on the
42

challenges host destinations have had with the growing and varying expectations of the industry; making
‘local cuisines a unique source to develop, introduce and market destinations’ (p. 727). Consequently,
gastronomic tourism has been a new and viable option for tourist development that is coupled with the
strength of indigenous culinary art form and colourful menus; ranging from conservative to exotic dishes,
exciting tourist to indulged in a new sensory experience (Özdemir et al., 2017, Pérez Gálvez et al., 2017,
and Sormaz et al., 2016). So then, what is gastronomy? According to Sormaz et al. (2015) gastronomy
“generally refers to the originality of a dish and its being indigenous to a place, or region” (p.726).
Originating from the merger of the “Greek words ’gaster’ (stomach) and ‘nomas’ (law)”, gastronomy is
seen as “the art of eating and drinking” covering a wide range of discipline including the arts and sciences.
(Altinel, 2014; Kivela and Crotts, 2016 cited in Sormaz, 2015).
In addition to the above definition, Sormaz et al. (2015) further posited that gastronomy does
not just refer to the uniqueness of a dish but it also includes “visiting food producers, eating festivals,
restaurant and special places related to some special foods together with tasting [of a] special dish,
observing its production and preparation process eating a special dish from the hands of a very famous
chef as well as seeing how a certain dish is being prepared” (Hall & Mitchell, 2000; Groves 2001, Green &
Dogherty, 2008; Caglı 2012, URL 2014 cited in Sormaz et al. 2015, 726). Consequently, and in keeping
with the perception of the varying levels of culinary tourism, one can say that gastronomy is a multidimensional concept (Özdemir et al., 2017, Pérez Gálvez et al., 2017), which facilitates an environment
for product development on varying levels. The importance of the above definition weighs greatly on
product development being that it identifies the uniqueness as well as the fragility of the product; in which
Crouch & Ritchie (1999) as referenced by Pérez Gálvez et al. (2017) illustrates the potential that a host
destination may have because of their culinary culture in relation to tourism (p. 605).
The relationship that forms the bond between heritage and food comes from the blending of
both tangible elements with that of the intangible; making it symbolic and synonymous with a particular
43

region or destination (Timothy et al., 2013; Yeoman et al., 2016 cited in Pérez Gálvez et al. 2017, p. 605).
With that focus, gastronomic tourism can be a tool that provide both indirect and direct means of
employment, generating income within rural communities and other underserviced areas (Sahin, 2015 as
reference by Sormaz et al., 2016; Giampiccoli et al., 2012) whilst promoting the tangible and intangible
heritage of that host community (Pop, 2016, Giampiccoli et al., 2012). As it relates to the use indigenous
food, Richards (2002, p. 3) posited that food tourism has become more prevalent especially when
juxtaposed with the local context and further suggested that “local food can serve as a pivot to enhance
the local economy” (Richards 2002,13 cited in Giampiccoli et al., 2012, p. 101). What does this mean then
for local economic development? Like many posts productive societies, there is that need to find varying
strategies that will empower them in building the local economy so as to retain the resources especially
the human resources (Giampiccoli et al., 2012, Pérez Gálvez et al. 2017).
Much of the scholarly articles that have been reviewed on gastronomic tourism, paint the
view that gastronomy has a significant social, economic, and cultural benefit to host destination especially
that of the rural communities, suggesting that it will allow for a rejuvenation of the primary and secondary
sectors (Giampiccoli et al., 2012, Yeoman & McMahon-Beatte, 2016, cited in Pérez Gálvez et al. 2017).
Giampiccoli et al. (2012) echoed similar sentiments when they issued a call for more farm-based tourism
that would have that trickledown effect on rural communities. They posit that, “if producers of food could
share not only their wares, but the culture and history surrounding their craft they would attract not only
consumers but travelers and tourist alike. Their business becomes two-pronged [..]. Not only would this
help stimulate growth of food producers, but the small rural towns […] that play host […] would enjoy the
secondary benefits of foreign trade” (p. 104). This statement clearly illustrated how inclusive gastronomic

44

tourism can be on the local economy. It brings together all sectors23 allowing for everyone to benefit from
the industry, once executed properly.

2.3 AUTHENTICITY AND ITS ROLE IN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
With all this attention on the sensory experience of the tourist concerning local cuisine and
gastronomic excursions; nations, communities, villages, or the like must spend time in ensuring that the
product or experiences offered, does justice to the culture they seek to project. This packaging, however,
goes well beyond the attractions that a host community or destination wishes to market as their main
theme, but rather it should also include all supporting facets that will cater to the needs of the visitor.
Ebster and Guist (2005), in examining authenticity of ethnically themed restaurants, positioned that
‘authenticity’, would be best served when examined from three varying perspectives namely, the
objectivist, constructivist and the postmodern perspectives (p. 43). In relation to the objectivist view,
authenticity was seen as going beyond the subjectivity of the individual (like that of the Han Tourist cited
in Yang et al., 2016, p. 29) and seen as a measurable object; where the object (such as furniture,
ornaments or figurines) or environment (from the decor to the ambient music being played) is genuine
and can be judged by an expert (Ebster et al., 2005). The constructivist perspective, describes authenticity
as being purely subjective, relying on the evaluations and perceptions of everyone (Reisinger and Steiner,
2006; Wang, 1999 cited in Özdemir et al., 2017). On the other hand, the postmodernist has taken a more
radical approach by rejecting the importance of authenticity all together, stating that the impacts of
globalization have made it extremely difficult to “draw limits between the authentic and inauthentic”
making it meaningless to them (Reisinger and Steiner, 2006; Wang, 1999 cited in Özdemir et al., 2017).

23

That of primary, secondary and tertiary

45

Two examples under which authenticity, in relation to food consumption, can be
examined as positioned by Özdemir et al. (2017) was that of the restaurant experience and the
gastronomical experience. Ebster et al. (2005) stated that, in the case of ethnic themed restaurants,
‘authenticity of a restaurant has a critical role in guest satisfaction; from the staff to the clothing, the type
of music and the food and beverages served’ (Ebster & Guist, 2005) supporting the view as positioned by
the constructivist perspective, indicating that authenticity is subjective. In support of this notion, Jang et
al. (2012) indicated that restaurant with authentic meals and atmosphere left positive feeling on their
customers engendering a desire to revisit and repurchase (Özdemir et al., p. 2). Therefore, though the
definition of authenticity can be somewhat elusive in its meaning, the substance of ‘what is authentic’ is
generally attributed to a unique experience, traditions, locality, culture, and otherness, that has
connection with the heritage of a people. Bendix refers to this process as “the façade vs the real thing”dichotomy (Bendix 1994: 67). To call something authentic, is to refer to a socially constructed ideology of

the culture and heritage of a people. Referring to the definition of cultural tourism (CT) as discussed earlier
in section 2.1.1 of this chapter, the constructs of authenticity is embodied in the ICOMOS’ definition of CT
which was described as the activity that enables people to experience the way of life of others, gaining a
first-hand understanding of their customs, traditions, intellectual ideas and those places of cultural
significance to name a few (Pop, 2016, p. 220). Therefore, once the experience can be described as being
unique to a region, or a set of people, based on the past traditions and customs, it can be stated as having
an authentic experience, whether it be staged or genuine. Chhabra (2005) supports this idea when he
mentioned in his article entitled ‘Defining Authenticity and its Determinants: Toward an Authenticity Flow
Model’, that “‘made by local hands’ was established as an important ingredient of authenticity” (p. 65).
The ideology as referenced above is important for product development especially in the field of
gastronomic tourism because it highlights the connections to traditions through cultural preservation and
transfer.
46

MacCannell (1973) in his article, “Staged Authenticity: Arrangements of Social Spaces in
Tourist Settings”, clearly illustrate how this idea of authenticity can impact the experience of the gust. He
examines the tourist’s interaction with “authenticity”, with the view of putting into perspective the hostguest relationship based on cultural representations and exposures. In exploring Goffman’s construct on
social structure of behaviour and beliefs, MacCannell sought to analyze what Goffman calls the ‘front’
versus ‘backstage’ experience of the tourist. Whereas the “front is the meeting place of host and guest or
customers and service persons, and the back is the place where members of the home team retire
between performances to relax and to prepare” (MacCannell, 1973, p. 591). We all at some point in our
lives have experienced this front/backstage experience when we go to hotels or even restaurants where
meal servers and the tourist interact through conversations over what maybe a mix of local and
international dishes in the front stage. Whereas the backstage would have been the kitchen and the staff
quarters which would have restricted access to staff only, preventing that interaction between staff and
guest in their down time. This perspective by Goffman, has led him to draw a distinction between “three
crucial roles on the basis of function” which included those who performed, the ones being performed to,
and those who have neither seen nor taken part in the performance (MacCannell, 1973, p. 591). The idea
of having this separation is to highlight the fragile state of what is perceived as being authentic. Because
the back region is closed to both the audience (those viewing the performance) and outsiders (those who
have no interaction with the performance), where all props and activities that were used in the
performance would be concealed, allowing for the creation of a false reality through mystification
(MacCannell, 1973, p. 591). Hence, the performance that is given to the audience, unless they have had
other interactions or experiences that would discredit the performance itself, what they receive would be
considered as an authentic experience. Pérez Gálvez et al. (2017) in referencing Timothy and Ron (2013)
suggest that we should bear in mind that the concept of gastronomy forms a portion of the ‘cultural
legacy’ of a destination, in which gastronomy is “both a tangible (ingredients used) and an intangible (the
47

flavour)” phenomenon (p. 605). According to Sormaz et al. (2016) “almost all tourist, no matter the
accommodations at which they are staying [whether they] provide food and beverages services or not,
prefer to eat outside; and get to know and taste the local dishes belonging to the region. Within this
context, local dishes of a region have become [an] important means to get to know and learn more about
different culture[s]” (Kastenholz & Davis 1999, Gyimothy et al., 2000, Joppe et al., 2001 cited in Sormaz
et al., 2016, p. 726).
In relation to product development and authenticity, Özdemir and Seyitoğlu (2017) have
suggested that “the authenticity of local food and its presentation may be one of the dominant attributes
that have an effect on the quality perceptions of tourists who are motivated to travel by gastronomical
attractions” (p. 1). With the ability to spend more, Pérez Gálvez et al. (2017) posits that those who travel
for gastronomic reasons are usually quite demanding regarding the quality and authenticity of the local
gastronomy (p. 606). That is why, it is imperative for focus on building an authentic product.

48

•PEAK
•Critical to the traveler
•Connection with the culture

AUTHENT
ICITY

•SECONDARY
•Not essential
•INCIDENTAL

FOOD
CONSUMPTION
•peak
•Tourist with neophilic tendencies
•Important for expereicne
•Food becomes the symbol of the
culture
•SECONDARY
•Food is incidential
•Part of a daily routine

TOURISM
EXPERIENCE
•PEAK
• Is primary motive for the trip
•SECONDARY
•Normal daily routine that are
incidential

Figure 2-5: Illustrating the tourism experience in two dimensions (Peak and
Secondary) as described by Quan and Wang (2004)

Quan and Wang (2004) devised a conceptual model that outlines the tourism experience by breaking
them into two dimensions being that of the peak and supportive experiences (P.300). Quan et al. (2004)
describes the ‘peak dimension’ as any activity that is sought after as the focus for travel. This activity is
said to yield a peak experience for the tourist, making their decision to revisit or not, purely on their overall
experience, which supports the above paragraph. Whereas the ‘secondary’ experience covers those
activities that are essential for sustaining each person such as food, accommodation, and the overall
49

hospitality of the people from the host destination. In Figure 2-5, tourism experience, food consumption,
and authenticity are all interconnected; allowing for travellers seeking to have that ‘peak experience’ in
their travel, to benefit from a complete package. Consequent to the fact that “representation not only
reflects reality but helps to constitute reality” (Duncan, 2001), cultural misrepresentation can be equally
as damaging to the tourist or locals who may be knowledgeable of the cultural offerings, being able to see
that what is presented have been downplayed. As opined by Özdemir et al. (2017, in referencing Jang,
Ha, & park, 2012; Kim, Kim, Goh, & Antun, 2011; Povey, 2011; Tsai & Lu, 2012) “the perceived quality of
gastronomical experiences in a destination may have a strong impact on tourist intention to revisit that
place” (p. 1), and equally will be the reverse if the presentation has failed.
In essence, what is described above is the notion that authenticity is perceived in the mind
of the individual based on the satisfaction of the sensory experience is matched with some level of
historical background concerning the culture of the people being interacted with. In other words, and as
referenced earlier, authenticity is a major pillar in gastronomic experiences and as such the careful
consideration in providing such an experience is key to product development.

2. .4 STRATEGIC ALLIANCES AND DESTINATION BRAND DEVELOPMENT
What is the value of brand development if it is inelastic? Considering the foregoing, building
a solid tourism product for a nation is very important in all respects, based on the fact that the sector is
dynamic, and the curiosity of the average tourist is slowly changing into more unconventional interest and
desires. It is for this reason that we find the host destination discovering more creative ways to improve
on their product offering to attract and retain the interest of their visitors. This focus, however, does not
come without challenges from other competitive destinations that offer similar products and, in some
cases, better variety and specific accommodative resources, to facilitate for multiple forms of access to
50

their destination (i.e., large air and seaports). Therefore, host destinations need to build strategic
relationships to remain relevant in the industry, whilst being able to meet the demand of this everchanging sector.
Building relationships in the tourism sector can be equally beneficial as well as risky, due to
the level of competition that exists within the sector. Despite this fact, the tourism industry in more recent
times has seen more strategic alliances being formed in tourism marketing, resulting from the strengths
that have risen through the complex product offering and interdependency among stakeholders (Palmer
et al., 1995; Reid et al., 2008; and Jetter et al., 2012). This process, as Young (2009) describes it, is known
as ‘Strategic Coupling’. This can be defined as “a mutually dependent and constructive process involving
shared interest and cooperation between two or more groups of actors who otherwise might not act in
tandem for a common strategic objective” (Sanz-Ibáñez et al. 2016, p. 2). Therefore, strategic coupling
and upgrading of local and regional products would be beneficial to the tourism industry. If the prediction
made by UNWTO as mentioned earlier in section 2.0 of this chapter should come to fruition, it will then
be prudent for host destinations to pool their efforts in meeting the growing demand of the sector. This
means that regions would need to device a plan that will make it more marketable, whilst seeking to
ensure that all stakeholders have a relatively equal opportunity to benefit from the market share. This
example fits the scenario of small island developing states (SIDS) who could benefit from steady flows of
tourism excursions; because, on their own, they may not be able to directly upgrade their tourist
industries to satisfy the demand of the market. Therefore, in fostering a robust strategic relationship
between local and global actors, this move will be able to build shared capacities for smaller tourist
destinations to remain competitive in this global market.
The European Union as referenced in section 2.1.4.2 of this chapter, have illustrated how
the power of having a regional brand that promotes the EU’s improved competitiveness and EU product
consumption globally (European Commission, 2020, 8 May), can do wonders for a region that has
51

strategically combined their efforts in promoting an authentic brand for gastronomical pursuits. In
supporting this notion, Sanz-Ibáñez et al. (2016) also referred to the EU’s promotional policy, showing
how countries that have a more developed product such as “France, Australia, South Africa, Italy, America,
England etc., where wine tourism flourishes” (p. 727), command a certain tourist market, and as such,
builds that niche market, creating a regional product that benefits all. This simply suggests that not only
is it important to build your local brand/product – such as the kebab of Turkey and the pasta and pizza of
Italy, to name a few – but it is equally important to build regional alliances that will help to facilitate
regional tours which in turn, benefits all, like that of the EU countries which are currently benefitting from
the Quality Schemes. Not only should this be considered as a regional effort by global partners, but rather
it should be first executed at the local levels between, villages, communities, parishes/provinces etc.;
being that local entrepreneurs as described by Fortunato et al. (2017) are a catalysis for growth and
development. They further suggest that local entrepreneurs help to build the economic base of a
community, not necessarily in traditional economic terms, but providing a climate that fosters local
growth through employment and empowerment (Fortunato et al., 2017).
In applying Fortunato et al.’s (2017) concept of local entrepreneurship development to
further local growth with Sanz-Ibáñez et al. (2016) concept of strategic coupling and upgrading; we see an
all-inclusive product that starts at the local level, establishing a brand (in this case, building on local cuisine
that may be unique to the local) that can be used as part of a larger initiative to spawn tours to a region –
either through a common brand or a combination of local brands used in marketing a regional product.
However, in as much as this alliance has proven to be beneficial, like all other business relationships it
comes with its own challenges. Reid, Smith and McClosky (2008) in acknowledging that the value of
strategic alliances has been recognized for years, have revealed that some of these alliances have been
created with little care or thought with the sustenance of the said relationship (Reid et al., 2008, p. 582).
Whilst it is important for pooling efforts – which increases the awareness and interest in less popular
52

destinations – some destination’s market mechanism, fail to support and share the benefits of paid
advertisements for that specific destination (Palmer et al., 1995), ultimately bringing more attention to
that destination. Also, some stakeholder may have little potential in tourism development as well as some
may be reluctant to partake based on historical mistrust between destinations (Palmer et al., 1995, p.
618). This is why it is important for the establishment of an ‘overseer’, a body that is established to
monitor such an alliance so that a memorandum of understanding can be established between partnering
destination as well as to effect clear and concise communication line between partners. Also, the United
Nations World Tourism Organization’s Business Council (UMWTOBC) (2003) cited in Reid et al. (2008)
suggested six (6) additional categories that should be considered by the overseeing body namely: 1)
Product Development, 2) Research and Technology, 3) Human Resources, 4) Marketing and Sales, 5)
Infrastructure and 6) Improved access to financing (Reid et al., 2008, p. 582). In short, long-term alliances
evolve, developing a system that responds to the internal climate of the relationship between
stakeholders, allowing for compromises that foster solidarity among members.

2.5 Closing Statement and Way forward
Therefore, with the aforementioned concepts and theories that have been explored in this
chapter, the researcher was able to gain a greater understanding of the differences between culture,
heritage, cultural tourism and heritage tourism and agri-tourism otherwise known as farm tourism in
some jurisdiction. This knowledge has put into perspective the varying aspects of gastronomy and
gastronomic tourism that can be used to enhance a destination’s tourism product. Considering the fact
that tourist type and tourism pursuits varies, the quest for this study in looking at Identifying the key
factors that drive the need for diversification of the tourist product; along with understanding the nature
of the transition from traditional tourist lure (white sands and beaches) to the neology of
53

Gastronomy/Cultural tourism has become more evident. As Pop illustrates, as referenced earlier in this
chapter, “the responsible use of cultural assets for tourism purposes” (Pop, 2016) can aid in the alleviation
of poverty through employment opportunities which may also reduce rural to urban migration. Hence,
why it is important for countries to be relevant in their marketing efforts for tourism enhancements.
Additionally, as referenced by Pop (2016), tourism in general can set the pace for “appreciation,
promotion and conservation of tangible and intangible heritage” (p. 220).
In accordance with the knowledge gained from the literature reviewed, understanding the
dynamic nature of the tourist, the varying aspects of gastronomy and gastronomic tourism allowed the
researcher to identify suitable examples as illustrated in the above chapter, that were critical in analyzing
the data that was being collected for this study. In addition, the researcher will be able to assess the
impact that tourism strategy of the Ministry of Tourism, Jamaica in relation to the typologies of the tourist,
the gastronomic typology as well as agri-tourism types. The theoretical and conceptual foundation that
has been established above will also aid in bringing substance to the analytical segment of this study
especially as it pertains to the cross-sector interactions between select public and private entities. The
information gathered will also be used in informing the discussion section of chapter six, with the hope of
making solid inferences and recommendations for giving understanding to the existing situation for
Jamaica with a view of influencing policy decisions, promoting future studies and for improving the
approach where possible for delivering the assessment of the current cross-policy interaction for the
government of Jamaica.

54

CHAPTER 3
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 OVERVIEW/RATIONALE
Tourism has been one of Jamaica’s main contributors of foreign exchange. This is consequent to
several factors to include but not limited to: a) its proximity to the North American tourist market, b) its
natural foliage, c) the vast collection of a myriad of picturesque scenery, d) its diverse culture, and e) white
sand and beaches among other features. However, in more recent times there seems to be a change from
the natural lure of the sun, sand and sea that initially was the focus for travelling to Jamaica. This transition
seemingly has taken on a renewed focus on cultural tourism and one such form of this influence is that of
gastronomy. Though the desire for experiencing cultural diet has been a part of cultural tourism
(Halliday,1993; Sormaz et al., 2016; Giampiccoli et al., 2012), the increased focus to push this as a strategy
for Jamaica’s tourism product may have been largely influenced by the country’s need to improve its
revenue base as well as to remain relevant within the tourism sector.
This transition has contributed to many major improvements in the island’s infrastructure, which
can be seen in the development of the nation’s major road networks (allowing for decreased travel time
between the North and South Coast, fostering quick movements between parishes). There has also been
an increase in accommodations for tourist especially as it relates to the new opportunities afforded by
the buzz of Airbnb’s. In addition, port upgrades and development (both sea and air) have also seen great
physical and technological improvements to meet the demands of the market. These
improvements/developments have made it easier for tourists to explore other non-traditional
destinations within Jamaica, unearthing new exposures based on local cuisine and other gastronomic
experiences. For this reason, and the fact that this territory falls on familiar ground for the researcher,
55

Jamaica has been selected as the study site for this project. Irrespective of the obvious resource
constraints [i.e., not being able to travel back and forth], the data collection process was anticipated to a
bit easier to access based on the connections made through prior professional relationships and personal
encounters. Therefore, knowing where to access this data was a key factor in addressing the issue of
selecting the study site along with the consideration of the time it would have taken to undertake the
study; whilst preserving the limited resources (both human and financial) to conduct this study.
With Jamaica being one of the more frequently visited destinations within the Caribbean (“Annual
Travel Statistics”, 2018, 7) and with the increased media and print publication of the Minister of
Government with responsibility for Tourism, the Honorable Edmund Bartlett - sounding the push for
gastronomy and cultural tourism as the ‘new market’ - gave rise to the interest of the researcher in
exploring the reason for the shift in focus from white sand beaches and eco-tourism to neology of
gastronomy and by extension cultural tourism.

3.2 GEOGRAPHY
3.2.1 JAMAICA

3.2.1.1 Demography and Ethnicity
According to the Statistical Institute of Jamaica [STATIN] (2017) population annual report released
on March 3, 2017, Jamaica’s end of year population counts per parish for 2016 had the overall population
for the island being recorded at 2,728,969 people and a projected population of 2,728,864 people for
2017. According to the World Population Review (2020) in referencing STATINJA, “Jamaica’s population is
overwhelmingly African descent”, suggesting that the largest being likens to the Akan tribe from what we
now call Ghana and the Igbo people from Nigeria (World Population Review,2020). The second- largest
group is that of “multiracial Jamaicans” with whom many have their roots embedded in Ireland. The
56

African decent accounts for 76.3%, followed by Afro-European at 15.1%, then East Indian and Afro _ East
Indian at 3.4%, Caucasian at 1.2%, Chinese 1.2% and other at .08% [though it was not stated as to who
makes up this group] (World Population Review,2020).

3.2.1.2 Physical
Jamaica is considered as “the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the largest Englishspeaking territory” (Jamaica Information Service, 2018). Its relative location has Jamaica positioned south
of Cuba, west of Haiti in the Northwest region of the Caribbean Sea (p. 1). The island has an approximated
length measured from east to west, amounting to 235 km (146 miles); and an approximated width of 80
km (50 miles) measured from north to south (Jamaica Information Service, 2018, p.1). That being said, the
total area is approximately 10,991 sq. km (4,244 square miles) including its maritime territory [Jamaica
Information Service, 2018, p. 1]. Based on the Maritime Areas Act (1996), as referenced by JIS (2018),
Jamaica is regarded as an archipelagic state which means the nation’s territory extends beyond its
coastline to comprise some 66 islands, rocks and cays (p.1).
According to the Jamaica Information Service, “The island is divided into three counties –
Cornwall, Middlesex, and Surrey – which are subdivided into 14 parishes: Kingston, St. Andrew, St.
Catherine, Clarendon, Manchester, St. Elizabeth, Westmoreland, Hanover, St. James, Trelawny, St. Ann,
St. Mary, Portland, and St. Thomas. Each parish has a capital town, which is typically the centre of
commerce with two of the fourteen parish capitals, Montego Bay in St. James, and Kingston, having city
status. Kingston, located on the island’s southeast end, is Jamaica’s capital” (Jamaica Information Service,
2018).

57

3.2.1.3 Political
Jamaica’s system of governance is known as a constitutional monarchy or limited monarchy in
which The Queen, represented by a Governor-General, is head of state (Jamaica Information Service,
2018, 1).

3.3 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
At the beginning of this paper, the researcher established several key objectives that was focused
on: a) Identifying the key factors that drive the need for diversification of the tourist product; b)
understanding the nature of the transition from traditional tourist lure (white sands and beaches) to the
neology of Gastronomy/Cultural tourism, b.i) to explore how the idea of gastronomy became the new
focus and how has it evolved, b.ii) to determine if this transition was a policy (government) driven or
business-oriented approach; c) understanding the meaning of this change in the eyes of the government
versus the private sector, c.i) to identify the impact of tourism policy on other Sectors (namely but not
limited to Transportation and infrastructure, Employment (formal and Informal), Accommodation).
Consequently, to obtain a greater understanding of the impact of gastronomy in support of the listed
objectives; the following research questions were established such as who is pushing the idea of
Gastronomy as a tourism driver? How has this concept impacted on cross-sector policies? What does this
mean for the local farmers? Would this push or revitalize the industry or a) will they use imported
products, b) would they focus on a mixed market approach, c) If options (a) or (b) was the case, how does
authenticity of the product fare out in keeping with the true meaning of gastronomy? Also, what aspect
of gastronomy was the nation focused on?
To satisfy the research objectives and questions that surfaced as a result of the above rationale,
the design of the research paper was structured as an embedded experimental mixed methods (e2m2)
design. This mixed methodological approach uses quantitative and qualitative data in both the collection
58

and analytical phase of the research which usually has a traditional quantitative or qualitative research
design (Caracelli and Greene, 1997; Greene, 2007 cited in Creswell et al., 2011,90). The reasons for
selecting this method are consequential to, but not limited to the facts that a) the length of time to
execute the study was limited; b) the resources needed for the execution of the study were limited; c)
being that gastronomy as a policy decision was new to Jamaica, there were not enough materials or
existing studies in Jamaica to use as a reference point to aid in the research process; and d) the qualitative
questions that were embedded in the online questionnaire were strategically placed in the instrument to
support the quantitative data that was collected and as such giving meaning to the collective responses
of the participants, seeking to understand the reasons for their selection as well as to support and or
illustrate a particular theme arising from the assessment of the quantitative results (Creswell et al.,
2011,90-91).
Outside of the restrictive reasons resulting from resource constraints, the main typological reason
for selecting mixed methods as a suitable option for this study has been underscored by what Greene,
Caracelli and Graham (1989) have posited about this method suggesting that both the quantitative and
qualitative methods complement each other as they seek to illustrate, enhance, and elaborate; making
the results of one clearer by the support of the other (Creswell 2011, 62). This idea was also supported by
Bryman (2006) as referenced by Creswell et al. (2011) where he (Bryman) referred to mixed methodology
as being “an approach that both quantitative and qualitative research have their strengths and weakness
for which each approach can pull from to bring completeness to the study” (Creswell et al., 2011, 62).
Following the above typological reason for selecting mixed methodology as the best approach,
this study has been predominantly quantitative in its design and execution with strong qualitative support
allowing for the analysis and presentation of the data in a descriptive fashion. A combination of both
primary sources (Interviews and online questionnaires) and secondary data sources (Statistics, News
59

articles, Case studies etc.) were used in an effort of building a context to be compared and contrasted
against the results gathered to: a) understand who was pushing the neology of gastronomy [That is, was
it the private sector or the government]; and b) explore the impact of this policy shift on both public and
private sectors. The use of secondary data was critical in supporting the study as it brought the project to
life, by putting into perspective the direction of the assessment of the data collected from the survey. It
aided in the formation of key concepts, principles, and best practices that were represented in the form
of but not limited to: a) statistics –illustrated by charts and graphs, and b) summary of specific media clips,
articles, and news briefs. It was hoped that, in collecting this data, the researcher would have gained a
better understanding of the factors that influenced the change in the traditional lure and its impact on
rural communities under the following thematic areas: 1) Transportation and infrastructure; 2)
Employment (formal and Informal) –a) Food vendors and restaurants Chains, b) Craft venders and
retailers, C) Tour Guides etc.; 3) Accommodation – a) Hotels, Guess Houses and Motels; and the general
Tourist product offered by Jamaica.

3.4 SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS AND ADMINISTERING RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Jamaica has fourteen parishes for which nine (9) of the fourteen (14) have established facilities,
attraction and venues that are currently explored by tourist, both local and abroad. For this study, and in
keeping with the objectives of this research paper, seven (7) of the nine (9) parishes namely: a) St James;
b) St. Ann; c) St Mary; d) Portland; e) St. Thomas; f) St. Catherine; G) Westmoreland will be the focus of
this study. These seven parishes have played a vital role in contributing to the tourist product and
experience for Jamaica. Therefore, based on the research objectives, and the methodological approach in
achieving the goal as set out above. Due to the limited timeline allotted for the completion of this study,
purposive sampling and the critical case sampling was selected as the appropriate method in selecting the
participants for the research. This particular method was selected due to its capability to make logical
60

generalizations and not necessarily statistical generalizations, as the research method is that of a nonprobabilistic sampling method (Palinkas et al., 2013; Tongco, 2007; Etikna, 2016). This is against the
background that the data needed for analysis is one that requires policymakers and managers who will
conduct their daily operation surrounding these policies. Therefore, to achieve one of the goals of the
study, which is to understand the factors that contribute to the shift in focus from the traditional tourism
experiences to the neology of cultural tourism and gastronomy in Jamaica; and to understand how these
changes impact rural communities. The undermentioned participants were chosen based on a) their
interaction with the tourism sector, b) the role they would play in the execution of this model one way or
another, and c) their expertise in the discipline. With that in mind, a series of interviews will be conducted
with both the government and the Private Sectors.

3.4.1 Government Sector
At the ministerial level, the following key ministries were selected to be interviewed, namely: 1)
the Ministry of Tourism; 2) the Ministry of Industry, Commerce, Agriculture and Fisheries (MICA&F); 3)
the Ministry of Health; 4) the Ministry of Local Government and Community Development (MLG&CD); 5)
the Ministry of National Security; and 6) the Ministry of Transport, Works and Housing. At the Local
Government and Agencies Level, the following municipal corporations were identified, namely: 1) the St
James Municipal Corporation; b) the St. Ann Municipal Corporation; c) the St Mary Municipal Corporation;
d) the Portland Municipal Corporation; e) the St. Thomas Municipal Corporation; f) the St. Catherine
Municipal Corporation; G) the Westmoreland Municipal Corporation. Of the listed local government
agencies, (3) of the seven were identified as having a Commercial Services or Manager or Business
Development Officer or the equivalent (if any), who was charged with the responsibility to improve the
revenue of the Municipal Corporation through the effective management of the parks, markets, and

61

public transport centre under their remit. This portfolio was identified within the St James, St. Ann, and
St. Catherine Municipal Corporations.

Outside of the ministries and the Local Authorities, a Planner from the Planning Institute of
Jamaica (PIOJ) was also included in the study, based on the fact that this Agency “seeks to initiate and
coordinate the development of policies, plans and programmes for the sustainable development of
Jamaica” (PIOJ, n.d.). Also, one of the participants representing the academia, whose background
specializes in heritage/cultural tourism was identified as a valuable person to the study, consequent to
the fact that his eyes would be independent from those who work in the industry and those who are
charged with the responsibility of regulating, and monitoring activities directly and indirectly related to
the industry.

3.4.2 Private Sector
From the private sector, the tour Companies are vital for the movement of tourist between nodes or
places of interest; as a result, the following organizations were identified for the study 1) the Jamaica
Union of Travelers Association (JUTA); 2) the Jamaica Co-operative Automobile and Limousine (JCAL)
Tours Limited; and 3) the Jamaica Association of Transport Owners and Operators (JATOO). Separate
and apart from the tour companies, the Jamaica Hotel and Tourist Association (JHTA) was also seen as
playing a vital role in the industry. The selection of these key participant came as a result, of the nature
of this research which seeks to explore the rationale for change and the impacts on the industry from a
policy level, consequent to the influence of policy on the respective sectors. Therefore, it is the
understanding of the researcher that the above participants will play a vital role in providing information
on market trends, the impact of this change on transportation and infrastructure, the impact on
planning and development, and employment.

62

3.5 RECRUITMENT
Recruiting most of the above participants was envisioned to be a smooth process based on the
professional relationships that the researcher had prior to the pursuit of this paper, however, for the
latter, the use of direct phone calls, and emails were identified as suitable means of getting in contact
with these key players. Nonetheless, in as much as the benefit of prior professional relationships were
useful in most regard, as Walsh and Ramsey (2003) expressed in their essay entitled “If It Came in the
Mail, I Wouldn’t Even Have Looked At It: Contact Triangulation as a Means to Increase Response Rates”;
it has proven to be increasingly difficult to administer surveys for research in the social sciences field due
to fact that respondents are bombarded by telemarketers, junk mail, and going one step further, student
and other researchers who wish a fraction of the time from the busy schedule of theses prospective
participant.(pp. 191). Conversely, Walsh et al. posit that, a ‘modified comprehensive approach’ be taken,
“emphasizing community contact and rapport” (Walsh et al., 2003). Unlike the case of Walsh and Ramsey,
for which they were able to be connected to their study site; for this research, the study site was far
removed from the researcher being that the site was another country that was the focus of the study.

3.5.1 Disseminating and the conducting of interviews and questionnaires.
The primary method of data collection that was utilized for this research, was that of online
questionnaires which were executed as interviews, however, to improve the data collection process, three
participants were contact via telephone to aid in completing the questionnaire based on conflicting duties.
Before the dissemination of any instrument, key informants were contacted to identify, in most cases, the
contacts for the head of the organization to submit the formal request for participation. From this
connection, the basis of the research, the requirement for participation, the rights and responsibilities of
the interviewee were all explained. Following this, the participant would have been required to respond
to the request within a specific time frame indicating their willingness to participate and the format of
63

participation. Once this has been obtained, the instrument was disseminated and followed-up with
thereafter.

3.6 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
The data that was collected via the online survey/interviews, was channelled through the Bandon
University’s Office 365 web app, that was accessed through the researcher’s outlook account. The data
obtained was stored on Brandon University’s server which was then extracted and analyzed. The method
in which the data collected from the survey/interviews were analyzed was that of framework analysis and
the employment of a simple mathematical process. This method (framework analysis) was useful in
finding themes and creating a relationship between key points to obtain the meaning behind the
responses in relation to the research objectives. On the other hand, in analyzing the quantitative data, as
stated earlier, a simple mathematical equation was used for the sole purpose of quantifying the responses
as it relates to specific questions. The use of the quantitative data was done as a measurement of
awareness levels rather than a tool used to understand relationships between variables.
Furthermore, the data collection was assessed on a descriptive basis rather than that of
establishing correlation. The use of mathematical calculations aided in establishing relationships between
variables such as age, and experience with the rest of the data. Separate and apart from the quantitative
method, on the hand of the qualitative portion of the study, framework analysis as mentioned earlier was
used to establish key themes. This was done by familiarizing oneself with the text, identifying a thematic
framework, indexing and or coding, then charting and interpretation as expressed by Ritchie & Spencer
(1994 cited in Srivastava & Thomson, 2009, 4). Using this approach, helped clarify the results of not only
the primary data that was obtained via the instruments issued but any additional secondary data that
have been used in the study to gain an understanding of the emerging themes. Although this method is
64

normally used in emergent studies, the purpose of emerging data was not to redefine or reshape
instrument initially submitted, but rather it was used to promote future research.

3.7 Limitation
As referenced earlier, it has
become more difficult to conduct
surveys,

in

the

social

An Illustration of the contact method and frequency for the
recruitment and data collection follow-up at the Ministerial level

sciences

discipline (Walsh et al., 2003). That
being said, irrespective of the efforts
that were made to secure some of the
participants

for

the

study,

the

attempts, though in some were
seemingly fruitful, they inevitably fell
through the cracks despite some of the
best efforts that could have been
employed based on the current

Table 3-1: Highlighting the contact frequency with the entities at the Ministry level

situation at hand. All of the entities
that were mentioned at the beginning of this chapter that was engaged only the Ministries of Health and
National Security, and the St Ann Municipal Corporation did not participate in the study (see Tables 3-1
to 3-3). In as much as a lot of effort was placed into recoding the frequency of contact that was made
along with the types of contact that was used, it should be not that some of the data was lost due to
accidental deletion and some of the contact numbers that were recorded can’t be identified.

65

Trying

to

contact

the

Ministry of Health proved to the

An Illustration of the contact method and frequency for the recruitment
and data collection follow-up at the Local Government/ Municipal level

most difficult of the three simply
because

none

of

the

listed

numbers for the Ministry worked.
They were eventually reached
through Facebook. Since then, and
as can be seen in table 3, they have
been

contacted

approximately

eleven times, not including the
busy signals received from the

Table 3-2: Highlighting the contact frequency with the entities at the Local
Government level

initial attempts. The Ministry of
National Security on the other had its

An Illustration of the contact method and frequency for the
recruitment and data collection follow-up at the private sector level

challenges, however, like the Ministry
of

Health,

both ministries

both

committed to participating, but did
not follow through. In as much as the
fact that they were contacted a bit late
in the recruitment phase, attempts
were made over a three-month phase
between emails and calls to get them
to participate. The option was even
placed on the table for the research

Table 3-3: Highlighting the contact frequency with the entities at the private
sector and other government agencies level

the personally call the selected participant and conduct the interview over the phone to facilitate the
66

process. This method was employed with the representative from JCAL and another from the St Catherine
Municipal Corporation, being that time constraints got the best of them. However, unlike JCAL and ST
Catherine MC, neither MOH nor MNS bore any fruit with all the methods possible were exhausted. Lastly,
the St Ann Municipal Corporation, though contact has been made with the CEO’s office, no response was
given as to whether they would be participating. Numerous emails and phone calls returned empty and
as a result, like both MNS and MOH, the response window for St Ann MC had to be close to complete the
other aspect of the project.
In concluding, despite the continued efforts to contact the Ministry of Health as well as the
Ministry of National security, which inevitably failed. The study was able to highlight areas that critical in
highlighting areas for which both ministries would have been expected to cover. Besides, the secondary
data that were used to support the findings of the study especially the visitor satisfaction survey that
was commissioned by the Jamaica tourist board, was very useful in highlighting areas of concern across
all government agencies that were selected as being critical to this study. These areas of Concern will be
further examined in the chapters to follow.

67

CHAPTER 4

4.0 Overview
In this chapter, we will explore the findings of this study arising from the data that was collected
in Jamaica between March 2019 and January 2020. In doing this, the study will outline key themes and
results that are a subject of poignant interest. To complement the analysis of the primary data and with
the ultimate view of achieving the research goals, based on the research objectives and questions outlined
in chapter one (1) which are also listed below; several secondary data sources, ranging from newspaper
articles to case studies and scholarly articles will be used to aid in articulating the response from the
research participants. It is hoped that at the end of this chapter the reader will be better able to
understand the Jamaican context concerning gastronomy and its impact on cross-sectors policy
interaction. Finally, this chapter will set the pace for the discussion section and future projections that
will be outlined in detail in chapters five (5) and Six (6) of this paper.
For the benefit of having a greater context of the research findings as mentioned in the above
paragraph the researcher has taken the liberty of reiterating the research objectives and questions
respectively that were focused on a) Identifying the key factors that drive the need for diversification of
the tourist product; b) understanding the nature of the transition from traditional tourist lure (white sands
and beaches) to the neology of Gastronomy/Cultural tourism, b.i) to explore how the idea of gastronomy
became the new focus and how has it evolved, b.ii) to determine if this transition was a policy
(government) driven or business-oriented approach; c) understanding the meaning of this change in the
eyes of the government versus the private sector, c.i) to identify the impact of tourism policy on other
Sectors (namely but not limited to Transportation and infrastructure, Employment (formal and Informal),
Accommodation). Consequently, to obtain a greater understanding of the impact of gastronomy in
support of the listed objectives; the following research questions were established such as who is pushing
68

the idea of Gastronomy as a tourism driver? How has this concept impacted on cross-sector policies?
What does this mean for the local farmers? Would this push or revitalize the industry or a) will they use
imported products, b) would they focus on a mixed market approach, c) If options (a) or (b) was the case,
how does authenticity of the product fare out in keeping with the true meaning of gastronomy? Also,
what aspect of gastronomy was the nation focused on?

69

4.1 RESEARCH FINDINGS
The study identified 18 entities that were believed to be suitable in providing the requisite data
needed to assess this new initiative, in using gastronomy as a tourism driver from a policy viewpoint.
These entities are as follows: the Ministry of Tourism; the Ministry of Local Government and Community
Development; the Ministry of Health and Wellness; the
Ministry of Transport and Works; the Ministry of
National Security; the Ministry of Industry Commerce

NAME OF PARTICIPATING ENTITY

NUMBER OF
PARTICIPAN
TS
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
1

Association of Jamaica; the St. James Municipal

The Ministry of Industry Commerce,
Agriculture and Fisheries
The Ministry of Local Government and
Community Development
The Ministry of Tourism

Corporation; the St Ann Municipal Corporation; the St.

The Ministry of Transport and Mining

1

Agriculture and Fisheries; the Jamaica Hotel and Tourist

Mary Municipal Corporation; the Portland Municipal
Corporation; the St. Thomas Municipal Corporation; the
St.

Catherine

Municipal

Corporation;

the

1
1

AGENCY LEVEL
The Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ)

2

LOCAL GOVERNMENT LEVEL
Saint Catherine Municipal Corporation

2

Saint James Municipal Corporation

1

Saint Mary Municipal Corporation

1

Saint Thomas Municipal Corporation

1

Portland Municipal Corporation

1

Westmoreland Municipal Corporation

1

Westmoreland Municipal Corporation; the Jamaica
Association of Transport Owners and Operators; the
Jamaica Co-operative Automobile and Limousine Tours
Limited; the Jamaica Union of Travellers Association; A
University Professor that specializes in heritage and
cultural tourism; and the Planning Institute of Jamaica
(See Table 4-1). Therefore, eighteen (18) recruitment

INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL
The University of Technology

1

PRIVATE ORGANIZATION
Jamaica Co-operative Automobile and
Limousine Tours Ltd (JCAL)
Jamaica Hotel and Tourist Association

1
1

Table 4-1: Illustrating the list of Agencies that participated in the study.

70

letters were submitted to all entities both
Representation of Participants per Age Cohort

response of at least twenty-one (21)
participants

based

on

the

request

submitted to specific entities such the

AGE COHORT

public and private, with an expected

50 and over
45 to 49
40 to 44
35 to 39
30 to 34
25 to 29
0

Municipal Corporations, that were asked to

2

4

6

NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS
participants

provide more than one participant if
possible;

however,

only

sixteen

Figure 4-1: Distribution of participants by age cohort

participants responded to the study. Based on

Cross-sectional representation of
Sectorial Participation

the number of instruments submitted and
concerning the total number of responses

15

obtained; for the benefit of this study, the

10

total number of participants that will be used

5

is sixteen (N=16).

0
Public

quasi

Private

no answer

That being said, and with the study
being centered around N=16, the following

Figure 4-2: Cross-sectional representation of sectoral
participation

observations were made. The majority of the participants fell within the age groups of “30 - 34”, “35 - 39”,
and “50 and over” totaling five (5), three (3) and three (3) participants per age cohort respectively (See
Figure 4-1). Those who responded to the call for participation were identified in table 4-1, with 12 from
the public sector, 2 from the private, 1 being quasi and 1 did not provide any response (see figure 4-2
above).

71

According to the data collected, the public

Cross-Sectional representation of Sectorial
Participation by Age Cohort

sector’s representation was more youthful as
opposed to the that of the private sector with
the majority of the participants being
represented in the age cohort “30 to 34” (see

6
4
2
0
25 to 29 30 to 34 35 to 39 40 to 44 45 to 49

figures 4-3). Most of the participant’s job
function can be described as ‘middle
management’ (I.e., Head of Department)

public

private

quasi

50 and
over

no answer

Figure 4-3: Distribution of participants by age cohort and
agency

(See figure 4-4), for Which three (3) stated
that the were within `the age cohort ’30-34’;
even though age cohorts ’40s-45’ and ‘50+’

Number of Participants

which accounted for 9 out of 16 participants
Job Function by Age Cohort
4
3
2
1
0
25 to 29 30 to 34 35 to 39 40 to 44 45 to 49

Age Cohort

accounted for two (2) participants each (See
figure 4-4). Approximately eight (8) of the
participants had ‘10+’ years of service,

Senior Manager

Middle Management

Intern

Other

50 and
over

Technical Staff

Figure 4-4: Distribution of participants by age cohort and Job
Function

whereas three (3) had more than five years

more than one year but less than five years of
service, and another two (2) having less than
one year of service (see fig 4-5).

Total Participants

but less than ten years of service, two (2) with

6

Years of Experience based on Job Function

4
2
0
>1

1>5

5>10

10+

not stated

Years of Service
Senior Manager

Middle Management

Intern

Other

Technical Staff

Figure 4-5: Job function by years of service

72

When asked if they have observed any changes
within the market strategy for tourism over the past five

Observance of the change in market
Strategy over the past five years
2

years, with 2019 being the reference point, most of the
14

respondents said yes (See figure 4-6). This observation
was important to the study as it would have set the tone
for identifying gastronomy as one such change,

Yes

No

Figure 4-6: Observance of market strategy

especially with all this focus on the sensory appeal of the tourist with respect to local cuisine. This data
also indicated that there is an obvious consideration for the need to diversify the tourism product, tying
back the first objective of this research which was also addressed at the end of Chapter 2.

4.1.1 Assessing the Knowledge of Gastronomy
When asked if they (the participants) were familiar with the term ‘gastronomy’ and or “food
Tourism”, fifteen (15) participants had reported that they knew about the term ‘gastronomy’ or have
some knowledge of either term. In looking closer
at the responses, by separating those who knew

Knowledge of Gastronomy
15
10

about the official term as opposed to the more
colloquial term, the data showed that only 11 of

5
0
Yes

the participants knew of the term ‘gastronomy’
whereas 4, who were not aware of the actual
term gastronomy, were more familiar with the
term ‘food tourism’. only two persons who

No

Know the term

not Really
Know full range

Knowledge
food knowing
tourism
Figure 4-7:
differentiatingof
between
the term
and
its
full
range
6
4
2
0

participated in the study did not know of either
term at all. Therefore, with this data, it was clear
that most of the participants knew about the

yes
Know the term

no

no answer
Know full range

Figure 4-8: differentiating between knowing the term
food tourism sand its full range

73

concept of using food as a tool to attract tourist. Despite this acknowledgment however, of the total
participants who knew about using gastronomy as a tool for enhancing the tourism experience or as a
tool for attracting tourist, only 4 participants had some knowledge of the full range of gastronomy. What
was interesting to note was
F a mi l i a ri t y w i t h t he t erm g a s t ronomy/ food t ouri sm
by a g e cohort
6

5

4

4
2

1

000

1

0

that none of those who

11

2
0

0

1

0

1

2

1

22
0

2
0

2
0

2
000

2
0

knew

3
11

0

the

colloquial

terminology ‘food tourism’

0

Overall familiarity of either Term (yes)

Overall familiarity of either terms (no)

45 to 49

other aspects that would

Not familiar with term Food Tourism

40 to 44

Not familiar with term Gastronomy

Familiar with term Food Tourism

35 to 39

Familiar with term Gastronomy

30 to 34

was able to speak about any

25 to 29

50 and
over

0

have been associated with

Figure 4-9: Knowledge of gastronomy/food tourism by age cohort

the activity. This possibly
could be as a result of the

fact that they may have taken the term by face value and not have been able to see beyond its inferred
meaning.

paragraph, it was clear that the
knowledge of gastronomy or lack
thereof was not unique to a particular
age cohort. However, those who
answered "no" or “not sure” were

Total number of Participants

In support of the above
Knowledge of the extent of gastronomy or food tourism
by age cohort
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
25 to 29

30 to 34

35 to 39

40 to 44

Age cohort

distributed across all age groups
except that of “25 to 29” and “45 to

45 to 49

50 and
over

Overall knowledge of the concept yes
Familiar with the rage of activities sourounding gastronomy

Figure 4-10: Knowledge of gastronomy/food tourism by age cohort

49” as reflected in figure (4-9).
74

Interestingly though, despite the high awareness of either term, only four (4) participants had some
knowledge of the range of activities associated with gastronomic or food tourism as mentioned earlier
(See figure 4-10). In seeking to understand this low rate in the associated activities with gastronomy, it
was observed that all who were able to list other aspects of gastronomy either worked in the industry or
has some professional interest in the sector. Therefore, the results of the study have inferred that whereas
the concept may not be unfamiliar with Jamaicans, b unless they are working in the sector or have some
level of interaction with the activities surrounding gastronomy, it may be unlikely for the average person
to know of the full range of the activity.

4.1.2 Assessing the viability of
gastronomy

Opinion Poll assessing the authenticy of the gastronomic
experience

Looking beyond the basic
knowledge

of

gastronomy

10
8
6
4
2
0

and

focusing on product development and

1: Not
2: Tailored
3: Some 4: Authentic 5: Authentic
authentic at for a specific
what
in taste only in taste and
all
market
authentic
experience

marketing, the study sought to
determine whether or not Jamaica

Figure 4-11 Assessment of the perceived level of authentic
experience.

would stand to benefit from using

irrespective of the fact that those
who

sought

out

Jamaica’s

offerings would experience some
amount of ‘staged authenticity’
as referenced in the cultural

Total number of participans

gastronomy as tourism driver

Opinon Poll on the progress of Gastronomy as a tourist
Driver for Jamaica
8
6
4
2
0
1: No progress at all;

2: some progress 3: neither positive
(attracting local nor negative impact;
patrons);

4: Great progress
5: Significant
(attracting local and progress (expanding
international
brand Jamaica on
tourist);
the international
scene)

Category of responses

tourism

literature.

However,

when asked the question “…how

Figure 4-12: Assessment of Jamaica’s potential in using gastronomy to
attract tourist.

75

do you see Jamaica progressing with this new focus on ‘food tourism’ as one of the drivers for tourism”, it
was observed that majority of the participant believed that Jamaica would have seen great to significant
progress with the use of gastronomy as a tourist driver; for which 7 participants thought that Jamaica’s
progress would have been great and or significant (see figure 4-11). They believed that this initiative
would be useful in attracting both locals and tourist alike, to the offering that Jamaica has to showcase
and further having brand Jamaica transcending beyond its shores (see figure 4-12). In addition, most of
the participant felt that the experience will be authentic not just in taste, but in the overall experience
(see figure 4-11). Despite the general feel for gastronomy being ‘a positive tool’ for tourism development
in Jamaica, one participant believed that there would be some amount of progress and another believed
that the experience would have been more tailored rather than being authentic (See figures 4-11 & 4-12).
It should be noted that these were two separate opinions.

NUMBER OF RESPONSES

Gastr o n o m y's p er ceived im p act on b oth th e
p u b lic an d p r ivate secto r ‘s op er ation al
p o licies
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Thirteen
participants

(13)
thought

of

the
that

gastronomy would have a positive
impact on both the public and private
sectors’ operational policies. When
asked to explain the reason behind
POSITIVE

NEGATIVE

BOTH

NOT SURE

PARTICIPANT'S PERCEPTION

Figure 4-13: Assessment of the perceived impact on the operational
policies of the public and private sectors.

their answer, what the researcher
found surfacing as common themes
were that of a) increased and

improved job opportunities for locals or the need for more jobs; b) emphasis is placed on strategic
alignment between the government and the private sector with a greater focus on Public and Private
Partnerships (PPP), and c) increased sectoral linkages between agriculture and the manufacturing sectors
76

that inevitably led to the promotion of local products and authentic local cuisine to name a few (see
excerpts below):
“Private entities that focused on one type of tourism will be required to
diversify their offers to compete with new and upcoming entities offering
gastronomy. However, a good strategy to keep their business relevant is to
create partnerships with other entities offering gastronomy. On the other
hand, the public sector will be forced to take a more comprehensive
approach to create an enabling environment to facilitate the growth of
gastronomy, especially at the community level. The government will
therefore need budgetary support and additional staffing, more so
Gastronomy Specialist.”
-

Participant #1

“It provides entrepreneurial and other opportunities, if not adequately
managed it result in the development of a local industry external to the local
agricultural sector.”
-

Participant #3

It will build awareness and help in diversification of offerings, create
additional job opportunities and in the end positively impacts return on
investment.
-

Participant #4

-

Participant #7

“Increase revenue and opportunities.”

77

“Exposure of indigenous foods being able to diversify on our product
increasing net profit. Also being able to promote health and wellness thus
increased productivity.”
-

Participant #8

“It would encourage farming, especially for our traditional crop. It will open
up the agricultural market. It will encourage Jamaican who are loosing [sic]
their natural taste, to return to their natural food (Jamaicans on a whole).”
-

Participant #9

“The government has made provision to be able to part take in the
industry.” [sic]
-

Participant #13

The above responses, charted the way for partly addressing objective ‘c’ that focused on understanding
the meaning of this change in the eyes of the government versus the private sector, c.i) to identify the
impact of tourism policy on other Sectors (namely but not limited to Transportation and infrastructure,
Employment (formal and Informal), Accommodation). It was clear by the responses that came from both
the public and private sector, that with this change, Jamaica’s agricultural and tourism sectors would stand
to benefit by including gastronomy as another tourism product. Despite the fact that there was only one
participant from the private sector from the llisted statemnets above, it was clear that this change in
strategy ment the same to both the private and public sectors. What was interesting to note as well was
the fact that several participants saw gastronomy as providing the opportunity for locals to get back in
touch with their traditional diet, charting a path for a healthier lifestyle which would intern increase the
desire for tourist to try our local cuisine. This can be better described in the following statements from
four participants (in bold font), see excerpts below:
“‘Tourists most often would like to experience the taste of local dishes”
78

-

Participant #12

“……It would encourage farming, especially for our traditional crop. It will open
up the agricultural market. It will encourage Jamaican (sic) who are loosing their
natural taste, to return to their natural food (Jamaicans on a whole)”.
-

Participant # 9

-

Participant # 10

-

Participant # 11

“more emphasis on our indigenous food culture”

“enhance the quality of the tourist experience”

From the responses indicated above, it is clear that all participant saw that
gastronomy would create new jobs especially for local farmers. There was also the
view that it would benefit both the formal and informal economoy for Jamaica.
What was interesting to see was that one participant incited that it will be
important for those paticipating in the tourism sector, to rethink their business
approach to include the thought of strategically aligning themselves with other
entities to improve their offerings especially with establishments that are purely
focused on promoting Jamaica’s gastronomy. This would also bring more focus on
two of the research question that was set out to be answered concerning what it
meant for local farmers and if this new focus would reviatilize the agricultral
industry.

79

4.1.3 Who stands to benefit and what
are the other opportunities that
Jamaica can benefit from

Sector(s) that stands to benefit the most from
Gastronomy
1

1
1

Following the statements from the
JHTA, 2

previous paragraph, it was clear to see that

MICAF, 10

the participants saw a real benefit form

1

gastronomy as a local initiative promoting

MICAF

Ministry of Health

JHTA

Jamaica’s culture. However, the researcher

small farmers

tour companies

no answer

needed to understand which sector or entity

Figure 4-14: Highlighting the sector(s) that stand to benefit
the most from gastronomic tourism.

stood to benefit the most from gastronomy. Figure 4-14 clearly shows that most participants believed
that the Ministry of Industry, Commerce Agriculture and Fisheries (MICAF) and by extension the
agricultural sector, was listed as the main beneficiary from this venture. Following MICAF, was the
Jamaica Hotel and Tourist Association accounting for two (2) of the responses. When asked to explain the
reasons for their selection, again themes such as increased employment, strategic alignment and
improved local food production came out, once again answering objectives C and research questions 2
(See excerpts below for MICAF and JHTA):
Responses for MICAF
“An increase in gastronomy tourism will inadvertently lead to an increase
in the demand of agricultural products.” [sic]
-

Participant #2

“The gastronomical industry is largely hinged on food, which is the basis of
the agricultural sector.”
-

Participant #3
80

“The Ministry of Agriculture is the body that is in the greatest position to
impact food production in the country.”
-

Participant #4

-

Participant #6

“More work for farmers.”

“They produce the variety of foods that are Jamaican and link with the
farmers across the island. This will aid in local economic development.” [sic]
-

Participant #7

“Increase food production.” [sic]
-

Participant #11

“Two of the wealthiest persons in Jamaica has taken on the initiative to
improve the agricultural sector so supply the hotels etc. with local produce.”
-

Participant #13

“Showcase of local products to reduce leakages through importation and
encourage export of same.”
-

Participant #15

Responses for JHTA
“In addition to their current tours, the demand on Tour Companies will
increase due to the need to transport tourist to areas/communities offering
gastronomy.”
81

-

Participant #1

“The hoteliers who would need to coordinate with the relevant bodies to
facilitate the initiative.”
-

Participant #12

“They will likely have the innovation and marketing ability to reach the
appropriate market.
-

Participant #16

However, one other theme surfaced that was thought to be a key finding being that of the call for
capacity building. One participant described this calling clearly by stating:
“This is a forgotten group [small farmers]. no one pays attention to them. they
have always been out there without any real help. Assistance to this group is
limited even from their associations.”
-

Participant #9

When asked which entity or sector
Sector (s) th at stan d s to b en efit th e least
fr o m Gastr o n o m y

would have experienced the greatest
‘negative’ impact, in as much as the
responses that can be seen in figure 4-

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

15, were almost distributed evenly
across all categories. You will see that
the hoteliers were the ones that came
out on top, with three (3) of the

Figure 4-15: Highlighting the sector(s) that stand to benefit the least
from gastronomic tourism.

82

participants selecting this group. Of the three participants that selected the Hoteliers/Jamaica Hotel and
Tourist Association, only one person gave a reason as to why they thought that this sector would stand to
lose the most. Their response was simple but profound, especially with the advent of homestays and more
recently Airbnb rising to the plate in this rapidly transforming sector. Participant # 1 posited that:
“tourist might want to stay in communities/in close proximity to areas that
offer gastronomy (homestays/Airbnb)”
- Participant #1
The above observation by participant #1 is profound in its delivery, being that it supports what
Sormaz et al. (2016) have been saying in their article entitled ‘Gastronomy in Tourism’. According to
Sormaz et al. (2016) “almost all tourist, no matter the accommodation…. prefer to eat outside…. they just
want to try local dishes and different tastes belonging to that area” (p.726). This position has underscored
the concern of participant #1 being that the hoteliers if they don’t revamp their offering and the way they
deliver the local cuisine to their patrons, they may stand to lose in this new venture to local homestays
and Airbnb’s. This notion ties back to what participant #1 positioned as her rationale for stating that the
public and private sector would experience both a positive and a negative impact on their operational
policies if they remain unperturbed about this fast-changing environment and refusing to diversify their
product. See excerpt below:
“Private entities that focused on one type of tourism will be required to
diversify their offers to compete with new and upcoming entities offering
gastronomy. However, a good strategy to keep their business relevant is to
create partnerships with other entities offering gastronomy. On the other
hand, the public sector will be forced to take a more comprehensive approach
to create an enabling environment to facilitate the growth of gastronomy,
83

especially at the community level. The government will, therefore, need
budgetary support and additional staffing, more so Gastronomy Specialist.”
-

Participant #1

In essence, and as mentioned earlier, if the hoteliers are unchanged in their offerings and make no
attempts to diversify their products, they will lose out on the opportunities that will arise from
gastronomic tourism.
Even though the hoteliers and by extension, the Jamaica Hotel and Tourist Association (JHTA) was
the entity that would be the one to have the greatest negative impact based on this new venture. In
assessing the overall responses, the data revealed that the Ministry of Transport Works and Housing
(MTWH) and the Ministry of National Security (MNS) were next in line as being the agencies that stand to
have a negative impact from this new policy directive for gastronomy. On the one hand, the concern that
was raised about the Ministry of National security (MNS), was the management of the ‘perception of
safety’, especially for the non-Jamaican patrons. Though crime globally is seen as a major deterrent to all
activities, especially those that are tourism-oriented; with this push to have patrons explore Jamaica’s
gastronomical offerings whether in a local restaurant, at a top-notch establishment, in a hotel or at a local
event. The safety of all patrons has always been a challenge for security forces globally. Concerning the
Ministry of Transport Works and Housing, being another entity that stands to have a negative impact on
the implementation of gastronomy. According to one participant, MTWH was selected based on a process
of elimination and not necessarily impacted negatively (Participant # 4). However, the other response
suggested that the MTWH would stand to lose being that “more [resources] will be needed to be
dedicated to agriculture” (participant #8); which could be interpreted to mean that the usual allocation
that MTWH would normally receive each financial year, may be redirected to aid the agricultural sector,
to meet the growing demand from the tourism sector.
84

Looking beyond the spike in responses which identified three entities that stood to have a
negative impact based on the initiative to implement gastronomy as a policy decision; other compelling
and insightful remarks that were worth mentioning such as the inability of potential small investors to
secure funding for their business because they may not qualify for one (participant #3 referring to the
financial sector). Other remarks regarding “the importers of food” saw this sector as being under pressure
to find the ability to supply whatever shortfalls that the local market could not meet to keep gastronomic
activities afloat (participant # 15). Participant #10 saw the Ministry of Agriculture have trouble keeping up
with the demand, suggesting that gastronomy would burden the agricultural sector rather than improving
it. See excerpt:
“It would cause a strain on the agricultural sector mainly on RADA24 to
provide proper training and business management course to the farmer.
RADA would need [t]o step u[p] their monitoring and use of technology to
give proper assistance to farmers.”
-

Participant #10

Participant #9 saw the impact on the Local Authorities such as the Municipal Corporations as it
pertains to the management of rural water supply and the deplorable road conditions leading to these
communities that could aid in supplying the market with fresh and good quality produce. Participant #9
posited that:
“They [Municipal Corporations] will be exposed with regards to their policy
roll out e.g., lack physical infrastructure (road quality being poor) and
shortage of public water supply especially in the rural areas”.

24

Rural Agricultural Development Authority

85

-

Participant # 9

4.1.4 Establishing and designating Gastronomic Centres
In 2017, Devon House was declared as

Promoting restaurant week as
a viable gastronomic event
20

were asked if they believed that this move was a

15

15

Jamaica’s first gastronomic centre. Participants

11

10

step in the right direction. Besides, they were

5

5

1

0
Attended

viable to promote
gastrononmy
yes

no

also asked if they thought other establishments
could be recognized as potential gastronomic
centres. On the matter of the first question, 14

Figure 4-16: Testing the viability of Restaurant
week in promoting Jamaica’s gastronomy.

participants agreed that yes it was a step in the

right direction; whereas the other two participants said that they were not sure. For the few that I spoke
with directly, they supported this decision based on the current offerings of the venue - not just because
of

Assessing the potential of other events that
can be used to promote gastronomy in Jamaica
Title

the restaurants and ice cream shops that are
there but the offering of the entire property

15

itself. This was because the features that were
10

important to them were based on its
5

centrality, its ability to facilitate large crowds,
0

and

yes

no

unsure

Figure 4-17: Identifying the possibility of other
suitable events to promote Jamaica’s gastronomy.

the fact that it facilitates the promotion of
family-oriented activities. When asked the

follow-up question if they believed that other establishments can be recognized as gastronomic centres?
13 responded ‘yes’ and 3 were ‘not sure’. Surprisingly, one of the participants who were not sure if
Devon’s house declaration were a step in the right direction, suggested that yes other establishments that

86

could benefit from this designation. This revelation only means that other establishments could benefit
from this designation.
Of the 13 that thought there were other establishments which could benefit from the designation,
only 1 did not provide an

Other Potential Establishments that should be
considered for being declared as the next gastronomic
centres

example. As illustrated in
(figure 4-18), Boston Jerk

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

establishment in the Parish
of Portland came out as the
number

one

choice,

followed by Hellshire beach
offerings, in the parish of St
Catherine;

Figure 4-18: Identifying other potential establishments that should be
considered as being a gastronomic centre.

Middle

then

came

Quarters

Shrimp

Stop and Little Ochie both in the
Listing of Potentially viable events that would
promote Jamaica's gastronomy

Parish of St Elizabeth (see figure 4-

Music festivals (2)

18).

Fashion festival (1)

physical location, participants were

Wine Tasting (1)

asked about local annual/seasonal

Food festival (breadfruit festival,
banana festival and yam festival…

events that they believed were

Protland Jerk festival (4)

Slightly moving away from a

worthy in promoting Jamaica’s
0

2

4

6

Figure 4-19: A listing of the possible events that are suitable to
promote Jamaica’s gastronomy.

8

gastronomy. The study examined
‘Restaurant Week’ as a pilot event –

originally known as ‘Kingston Restaurant week’ – which has been around since 2004 making it a fifteen87

year-old event. Partnering with local restaurants within Jamaica’s two main cities and a major tourist town
namely Kingston, Montego Bay and Ocho Rios respectively (Restaurant Week Jamaica, 2009). The idea
has been to have these partnering restaurants give major discounts starting as low as 30% on select meals
whilst allowing patrons to explore the island’s “culinary experiences” (Restaurant Week Jamaica, 2009).
When asked the question if they would consider Restaurant Week a viable event for promoting
gastronomy (food tourism) to locals and tourist alike? Fifteen of the sixteen respondents said yes! Of the
fifteen that said yes, only ten have attended at least one staging of the event. However, only one
participant objected to Restaurant Week being a viable event in promoting Jamaica’s gastronomy (See
figure 4-16).
Outside of Restaurant Week, when asked the question: do you think that other events that can
be considered as suitable gastronomic events? Twelve responded yes, one said no and two were not sure
(See figure 4-17). From those who responded yes, came a sizeable list (which had to be categorized under
a common theme or heading) making the ‘food and festival’ category stand out as the number one
response accounting for Jamaica’s breadfruit festival, banana festival, yam festival curry and mango
festival to name a few which are all seasonal events across the island. Second to the food festival was that
of the Portland jerk festival, which was singled out based on the frequency of response for this event (see
figure 4-19).

4.1.5 Cross-policy Interaction between Government Entitles and the Private Sector based
on the Policy Direction of the Ministry of Tourism.
Unlike the previous section that sought to gain an understanding of the participant’s knowledge
of gastronomy and what is their outlook on how Jamaica stands to benefit from this activity. Section Three
of the survey, was directed at achieving the research objectives and questions, as referenced in chapter
one of this paper especially objective numbered three, that sought “to understand the meaning of this
change in the eyes of the government versus the private sector; by identifying the impact of tourism policy
88

on other sectors namely but not limited to a) transportation and infrastructure, b) employment (formal
and informal economy), and c) accommodation (that takes into consideration) the hoteliers and other
local establishments. Other from Objective numbered three, research questions 1-5 were the main
guiding factors, that was used in designing the questions especially those questions that were directed to
the Ministry of Tourism. Again, in reviewing the responses from Section Three, it was important for the
reader to know that, before submitting these questions to the respective participants, the researcher had
a personal bias toward ‘crosstalk’ or rather the lack thereof between government department and
agencies. This bias, however, was addressed by allowing each entity to several questions that would either
support this bias or refute it.
Firstly, it should be noted that, of the sixteen participants that started the study, only fifteen
continued to Section Three. Excluding the Ministry of Tourism, all participants were asked if they had been
contacted by either the Ministry of Tourism or their respective Parent Ministry (where applicable)
concerning the initiative to use gastronomy as a policy decision to excite the tourism sector. Five (5)
responded in the affirmative stating that they were either contacted by the Ministry of Tourism or knew
of the Ministry contacting select stakeholders before launching gastronomy as a policy decision. However,
the remaining nine (9) responded in the negative stating that they were not contacted nor were they
aware of any stakeholder consultation. The entities that responded ‘yes’ were the St Mary and St Thomas
Municipal Corporations, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Jamaica Hoteliers and Tourist Association and the
Jamaica Co-operative Automobile and Limousine Tours Ltd. (JCAL). Those who responded ‘No’ came from
the Ministry of Local Government and Community Development, the Ministry of Transport Works and
Housing, the Planning Institute of Jamaica, the Municipal Corporations for St. James, Portland, St
Catherine and Westmoreland, and the representative from the University of Technology from the faculty
of the Built Environment.
89

Despite the above responses, when questioned about who the Ministry of Tourism consulted with
concerning the new policy decision (Which includes a listing of all participants); the only entities that were
identified were that of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Jamaica Hotel and Tourist Association.
Therefore, it was evident that some amount of consultation took place. On the other hand, the range or
scope of such consultation was not wide enough because gastronomical activities will impact all sectors
across the island of Jamaica. Hence, the gap in the efforts of inclusivity at the Ministerial level so that the
relevant directives can be handed down to the varying departments and agencies. It was unfortunate that
the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of National Security did not participate in the study as their voice
would have been powerful in determining if the Ministry of Tourism was short-sighted in their efforts to
not include the above-mentioned Ministries.
Consequently, and in keeping with the focus of this study which investigates the impact of
gastronomy on the cross-sector policy. This segment turns all attention to individual sectors, which are
not arranged in any specific fashion. The representation of the data in this section seeks to examine the
responses from each sector, looking through the lenses of the entities that were interviewed with a focus
of seeing the impact of gastronomy’s policy roll out on their operational policies. Prior to exploring the
sectoral impact, I will go through the Ministry of Tourism’s plan for gastronomy in Jamaica.

4.1.6 Understanding the Ministry of Tourism’s plan for Jamaica’s Gastronomy
Separate and apart from the notion of whether the government of Jamaica is talking with each
other, to have a seamless transition between their inter-agency policies, reducing overlaps and gaps. One
of the main foci of this research was to identify who is pushing gastronomy as the new tourist driver for
Jamaica. This focus was echoed in the research objectives as well as the project’s research question to
determine if this was a public-private initiative or whether it championed by either of the two. The
Ministry of tourism was asked: “When was the concept of gastronomy realized as a tourist initiative for
90

Jamaica; and what was the driving factor that inspired the policy decision?” In response to this question,
the representative from the tourism Ministry stated that:
"The concept has always been a known fact, as far back as
independence, that our food culture was so impactful so as to attract
visitors across the [world]"
-

The Ministry of Tourism

Though the question was not answered clearly,
Was gastronomy a Private Sector or a Governmeny
Sector Initiative

it is suggestive that the initiative did not
originate with the Ministry; however, clarity was
brought to light when a similar question was
posed to the Jamaica Hotel and tourist
Association, asking if they “believe that
gastronomy (food tourism) was inspired by the

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
The
Private Sector
Government
of Jamaic

both

Not Sure

Figure 4-20 Identifying the sector that is pushing
gastronomy as a tourism driver.

government of Jamaica or was it a private sector initiative” for which they commented that it was a
collaboration between both the private and public sector (see Figure 4-20). In addition, like the Jamaica
Hotel and Tourist Association, the Planning Institute of Jamaica and the Representative from the
University of Technology were also asked if they believed that gastronomy as a tourist driver was a
government of Jamaica initiative or a private sector inspiration; as seen in (figure 21), the JHTA and the
Academia believed that this was a combined effort and not just the initiative of one. PIOJ, on the other
hand, was split between the private sector and a general unawareness of who may be the driver behind
this new push. When asked about the aspect of gastronomy that the Tourism ministry was focused on,
whether all, individually or a select few, being that of A) Culinary Education; B) Farming Technology; or C)
Cuisine Experiences to include observation of food production/preparation process, the Ministry
indicated that they were focusing on all three categories. In addition, the representative positioned that

91

the Ministry was genuinely concern with the level of authenticity that was portrayed by any participating
entity, suggesting that anything that represents Jamaica should be an authentic product. This is so being
that MOT is focused on ‘building a hub to experience a multicultural experience’ as per response from the
officer from MOT when asked about the ministry core focus for gastronomy.
With the Ministry focusing on culinary education, farming technology, and the local cuisine
experiences to include observation of food production/preparation process, JHTA envisioned that there
will be a greater push for off-site activities from tourist. Also, PIOJ, JHTA and the representative from the
University of Technology commented that they believed that gastronomy will positively impact Jamaica’s
economy with equal responses suggesting that the formal and informal sector would benefit from
gastronomy. The data also indicated that local schools that were focused on building the skills sector and
hospitality industry were identified as benefiting from gastronomy as well being that locals will be more
inclined to get themselves trained to meet the demand on the industry. This was important to note
because JHTA acknowledged that there will be an increased demand for hiring local culinary students to
showcase Jamaica’s culinary offerings. It was also envisioned that gastronomy would have a) improve
revenue for the hotelier, b) create jobs, and c) make hotels more marketable; especially with the focus of
collaborating with the agricultural sector as well. In keeping with the Ministry’s efforts to set a standard
for establishing Gastronomic Centres, the Ministry was asked about their plans for another gastronomic
site and a timeline for establishing these centres. They were also asked about specific criteria that will be
used to determine the viability of a destination or establishment as well as the steps that will be required
of each prospective establishment (especially the smaller ones). Based on the information provided by
the participant representing the Ministry of Tourism, the Appleton Estate, which is one of the main
producers of authentic Jamaican rum, located in the parish of St. Elizabeth was listed as the next
gastronomic centre. According to the Ministry of Tourism, the time frame for establishing other
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gastronomic centres is expected to be executed over another five-year period with the year 2017 being
the reference point. As it relates to the established criteria to determine new gastronomic centres, the
ministry is looking at “Its impact on food tourism, it’s significance to the Jamaican culture and food/drinks
unique to us. Its ability to improve brand Jamaica’s identity as a place to travel for food and drinks”
according to the representative from MOT. As it relates to the steps that will be required but not limited
to this list, any interested entity that wishes to be considered a viable gastronomic centres, they are
expected to have a minimum of three basic requirements being that they must a) Obtain a specific permit
from the Ministry of Tourism, b) Be certified by the Ministry of Health, and c) They must have received
some form of ‘Team Jamaica’25 certification. Finally, despite the all the efforts as mentioned above, based
on the response of the representatives from the Ministry of tourism, when asked if the “Ministry foresaw
[Jamaica’s] gastronomic experience being a seasonal activity”, the response was ‘Yes’.

4.1.7 Appreciation of Sectorial Impact
After obtaining a brief overview of Jamaica’s focus for gastronomy, the researcher needed to
understand how the Ministry of Tourism envisioned their policy decision impacting on other sectors
especially, being that they positioned gastronomy as a seasonal activity. Thus, when asked, “Does the
Ministry foresee a positive impact on local economic development in the undermentioned areas, namely:
a) Accommodation, b) Transport and Infrastructure, and c) Employment”, the response that came back
was that of “A and C” only. Outside of the impact on local economic development, the research needed
to hear also from other agencies that would have been impacted by the Ministry’s policy. This was done

25

A mandatory training and certification programme for persons employed in or otherwise associated with the
hospitality and tourism industry. The programme's main components include customer service, product
knowledge, cultural and environmental awareness. (“TPDCo expanding Team Jamaica program”, 2017)

93

with the view of allowing the agency to identify any existing issues that they are struggling with, and allow
them to forecast, if possible, the additional constraints that their respective Ministry, department,
authority, or association would have faced. After identifying these shortcomings, a number of the
questions were designed in such a way to allow them to illustrate the possible remedies to their problems.
With this understanding, the study will now focus on these select Ministries, departments, authorities,
and association to see how they saw themselves coping with any foreseen changes in their normal course
of duty that was incidental to MOT’s new direction. Consequently, all participants were given the
opportunity to reply according to their respective sector save and except the representatives from the
Planning Institute of Jamaica and the academia, who were asked to provide their perspective on how they
saw the overall impact on both the government sector and private sector.

4.1.7.1 Impact on Local Government
The Municipal Corporations, under the watch of the Ministry of Local Government and
Community Development, are charged with the responsibility of regulating and monitoring new and
existing facilities through but not limited to, the Building Act and its supporting regulations; The Town and
Country Planning Act; the Markets Act as well as the land-use policies and plans as represented in the
Development Order for the respective parish to name a few. With that in mind, and with the fact that
more facilities will be coming on stream as part of this new venture, the vigilance of the Municipal
Corporation will be needed to aid in protecting the patrons – both local and overseas, through
enforcement, monitoring and public education. In addition to the responses from the Municipal
Corporations, their data will also be cross-referenced with the response from that of the Ministry of Local
Government and Community Development where possible to have a broader view of the sector. That
being said, several questions were posed to this group (Municipal Corporations) to ascertain their
readiness as it pertains to the impact that they may endure as a result of the way forward to use
94

gastronomy as a tourist driver. Of the five Corporations that responded to the study, six participants were
recorded as taking part in the study with two representing the St Catherine Municipal Corporation (i.e.,
one representative from the Planning Department and the other from the Commercial Services Unit).
When asked ‘How will gastronomy (food tourism) impact the operations’ of the respective department;
with respect to the Planning

How will gastronomy (food tourism) impact
the operations of the Department?

Department, four out of five

Strucured Responses

suggested

that

they

would

Other
Complete revision of operational
protocol

experience little to no impact on

Increased demand for additional
officers

their

Little to no impact on daily operations

daily

operations.

One

participant stated that it will

No impact at all

increase
0

1

2

3

4

the

demand

for

5

Number of Responses

additional officers. However, the

Figure 4-21: Impact of gastronomy on the daily operations of the
Municipal Corporation’s Planning and Commercial Services Unit.

participants that selected ‘other’
suggested that the department

may need more support based on the existing structure (see figure 4-21). The officer stated:
“more offers are need because it will take more monitoring due to the large
scope of duties to cover along with a large parish to cover.” [sic]
-

Participant #6

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This notion was also supported by the Commercial Services representative, stating that this new
initiative calls for an increase in staffing. On the other hand, the Ministry of Local Government, when
asked how gastronomy will impact the operations of the departments and agencies under its control; the
officer suggested that a positive impact was envisioned. With the confidence expressed in the responses
from the previous question by the majority; when

Is the Municipal Corporation in position to
meet existind demands with the posibilty of
increased varying application types?

asked if they believed that their respective corporation
was in a position to meet the existing demand with the
possibility of having an increase in the number of

4
3
2
1

varying application types, there was almost a 50/50

0
Yes

balance in responses (see figure 4-22) and if the
response from the Ministry of Local Government were

No

Not Sure

Figure 4-22: Assessing the readiness to meet the
demands of increased applications and
monitoring due to gastronomy

to be included in this category, the responses would have been 3 ‘Yes’ and 3 ‘No’ and 1 ‘not sure’. In a
follow-up question geared at understanding how the Corporation will go about regulating any informal
operations that may pop up as a result of this new initiative, what came out as strong themes were that
of enforcement, monitoring and public relations. Here are examples of their responses:
“The Municipal Corporation will enforce the provision of acts and
regulations that it administers. The Corporation will also engage with
stakeholders though various media”. [sic]
- Participant #5
“We will continue with serving stop orders in an effort to get all
unregulated establishments to conform. In addition, the corporation
will ensure, that all required documents are submitted and are up to
date [such as food handlers permit etc.] before they are integrated
with the regulated facilities”.
-

Participant #6

“Enforcement and regulation. No vending zone. Permitted vending
with specific time allocation and designated areas for such
operation”.
96

-

Participant #7

-

Participant #8

“Providing regulations and monitoring”.

“How we should address the matter, we should educate the
population on what is expected, however, at this present there is a
lot of work that needs to be done in order to meet the requirements”.
-

Participant #9

“public education meeting [and] community consultation”.
-

Participant #10

Most participants, including the participant from the Ministry of Local Government and
Community Development, felt that there was no need for any changes in the current policy documents
that the corporations used as a guiding principle for the control of development with the exception of
three; for which one who wasn’t quite sure whether or not any of the acts, regulations or company policy
needed revision whereas the other two thought that ‘yes’ there are few that require some adjustments.
The two that acknowledged that changes were needed for some of the acts, regulations and or company
policies, indicated that:
“Local sustainable development plan”
-

Participant #8

“The longstanding Acts and Policies that are currently in place but are out
of date in some instance, such as the Market Act as an example.”
-

Participant #9

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Separate and apart from the fact that two persons suggested that there were merited changes in the
operational policies when asked if the Municipal Corporation that they are a part of, was in a position to
strengthen their department /Unit to meet the demand of this growing sector. A similar distribution of
responses was illustrated like the question that inquired if the corporation was able to meet the existing
demand with the possibility of increased and varying application types (i.e. an almost 50/50 balance in
responses). However, the Ministry of Local Government, said in one of their responses, that the ministry
is prepared to do anything necessary to strengthen the department and agencies under its purview in
order to accommodate the drive to use gastronomy as a tourist lure for Jamaica.

4.1.7.4 Impact on the Agricultural sector
Like the Ministry of Local Government, the Ministry of Industry, Commerce, Agriculture and
Fisheries (MICAF), also envisioned that gastronomic tourism would have a positive impact on its
department and agencies as well as the local farmers that they are responsible for. When asked to explain
the reason for the stance that has been taken by the Ministry, the reply that came back was:
“Rural Agricultural Development Authority (RADA), will stream line farmers to
produce large and needed quantities to ensure demand is met at competitive
prices”. Also, “Production of Local Agricultural Products will increase farmer's
income and enhance rural development” [sic]
-

The Ministry of Industry, Commerce, Agriculture
and Fisheries

In support of the above position, the Ministry of Tourism had also indicated in their interview that they
were collaborating with MICAF regarding programs to aid in enhancing their product diversity. This
partnership was geared toward building the sector so that they would be able to meet the demands of

98

the sector that gastronomic tourism is expected to turn over. Looking into product diversity and the
expected impact of gastronomy in the agricultural sector, MICAF was asked if there were any policies in
place to protect the industry from external activities that may affect the industry’s ability to meet the
demand of the market. MICAF responded ‘yes’, suggesting that the “National Seed Policy, Animal Health
Act, Food Nutrition Policy” were examples of these policies. Like most of the representatives from Local
Government, MICAF did not foresee a need to change any of their existing policies or plans to meet the
demands of the tourism industry.
On the matter of assessing the use of local produce in hotels, the JHTA was asked if there would
be greater collaboration between local farmers and hoteliers – in facilitating the use of more local produce
in hotels as opposed to imported goods – in which, the representative responded yes to this question.
The above question was asked based on a news release in 2018 which the Minister of Industry, Commerce,
Agriculture and Fisheries in made mention that a small percentage of local produce was used in the hotels
across Jamaica as opposed to imported goods. When asked, what was being done to improve this
situation, the officer from MICAF suggested that:
“This statement is not factual. Fresh fruits, vegetables and ground
provisions are supply to hotels by local farmers. Also, Jamaica is self
sufficient in eggs, chicken, and pig. However, lamb, special cuts of
beef, mutton and fish and imported.” [sic]
-

The Ministry of Industry,
Commerce, Agriculture and
Fisheries

This position was also supported in a media release by the Jamaica Hotel and Tourist Association on
Tourism and Agriculture – Partners for Development. JHTA advised that:

99

“Tourism Demand Study was conducted by the MOT&E26 in 2015 which
found that 69% of the responding businesses reported that less than 10% of
their total expenditure on agricultural produce had been allocated to
imported items during the previous year” 27
-

Tourism

and

Agriculture

–

Partners for Development, 2018

JHTA further commented that they have been “focused on building partnerships, collaboration and
business relationships with other sectors of the economy, with positive results” and that they are
“committed to an inclusive tourism business model which promotes stakeholder partnerships and the
inclusion of local producers and service providers” (Tourism and Agriculture – Partners for Development,
2018, 8-9 & 18-19). In a follow-up question with MICAF, that sought to determine the capacity of farmers
in the existing situation to meet the demands on the sector, MICAF was resolute on the fact that farmers
are willing and capable of meeting the demands of the sector.
However, in reviewing the tourism demand study, a few things were noted that would aid in
putting context to the figures mentioned above as well as to the claims made earlier by MICAF and JHTA.
According to the study “in terms of the nature of spending, 11 (69%) of the responding businesses
reported that less than 10% of the total expenditure on agricultural produce had been allocated to
imported items during the past year. Four (25%) businesses spent between 10 and 50% on imports while

26

Ministry of Tourism and Entertainment now known as just the Ministry of Tourism
According to the Tourism Demand Study’s methodology, the total responding business were 28 for which 23
were usable (Tourism Demand Study, 2015, 5). In addition, the information that was provided was based on the
responses of 14 participating business that listed accommodation as their main subsidiary activity (Tourism
Demand Study, 2015, 5). For more information, the document can be accessed at
https://www.mot.gov.jm/page/tourism-demand-study-0
27

100

one (6%) spent in the range of 70-79% on imports. This business with the highest expenditure on imports
has a room capacity of between 501 and 700 and operates a European Plan28 (EP) type of accommodation
proportion” (Tourism Demand Study, 2015,7). What this means for the local market is that, in as much as
the JHTA stated that ‘69%’ of the hotels in Jamaica spend less than ten per cent on imports, it was mainly
the locally owned and smaller facilities that were the ones supporting the Jamaican farmers, which the
study identified. Nonetheless, most of the larger facilities especially the major hotel chains will be
spending much more than the ten per cent on imported products, which also contributes to the leakages
that the Jamaican farmers and manufactures are faced with, which is also explained in the document.
Another factor to consider is the fact that some of these hotel chains use ‘middlemen’ to source their
products, which is difficult to determine whether the products are sourced locally or through external
importers.
Therefore, with the above revelation indicating where the support for local farmers’ rests; and as
it relates to the capacity of the existing farming industry to manage the existing demand of the sector. As
mentioned earlier, the report clearly identified the potential of our local markets as well as the threats.
These threats with estimated leakages to foreign imports were estimated to be “J$ 1.65 billion to J$4.96
billion, [which] also compares well with Jamaica Customs data showing agricultural imports by the tourism
sector valued at about J$3.64 billion” (Tourism Demand Study, 2015,12). It also supports the claim of the
officer from MICAF, suggesting that there are specific crops that are required by these larger chains,
requiring not just the quantity but also consistency in quality, based on the market that they are attracting.
In the 2015 study, a representative from the JHTA in an elite interview highlighted the inability of the local
farmers to meet the high standards set by the hotels alluding to a) the consistency of the supply, and b)
the large quantity that is required at a time which corroborates the position made above by the officer

28

The charge that is imposed on per night stay without the inclusion of meals.
101

from MICAF. Pertaining to the quantity to be supplied, there were several factors that were identified that
would inevitably prevent the local producer from effectively competing in the market with larger external
suppliers. Outside of the obvious being that larger suppliers have more industrialized farming systems,
there is also the fact that the hotel chains are restricted to who supply ground produce to them (which
must be approved by the central body that governs each facility) (Tourism Demand Study, 2015,16). One
distributor was also referenced in supporting the claims made by the JHTA, in stating that the “size of the
farms in Jamaica are too small and therefore the output is not enough or cannot afford to be consistent
in supply since they have to plant a range of crops” (Tourism Demand Study, 2015,16). who went further
to suggested that size of the farms in Jamaica were too small, reducing the required output or they just
cannot afford to be consistent due to the fact that they have to plant a range of crops to meet the demand.
In all that was mentioned above, another impact that hindered this integration was as stated
before, was the fact that these centralized purchasing powers from these hotels, do not ‘drill down’ to
the small farmers for reasons stated earlier. Going back to the use of ‘middlemen’, the representative
from MICAF formerly known as ‘MOAF’29 who was interviewed, stated that:
“Some of the hotels use middlemen, so they will have a bid and a particular middle man
could win the bid to supply local or a person wins the bid [and] go to another farm and
play each farmer against each other to get the best price. They are not interested in the
long-term welfare of the farmer themselves, it’s wherever they can get the goods on spot
and cheap they will buy it and take it to the hotel. So that does not augur well for
structured relationship between the hotels and famers so if we’re going to change that
the hotels have to be prepared to give contracts to farmers so that farmers can plan.” [sic]

-

29

Tourism Demand Study (2015,16)

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries

102

Other issues that were highlighted were that the “hotels tend not to pay the farmers on time, owing them
up to three months at a time” as well as the “foreign owned [sic] entities ... dictate that they [hotel chains]
need to purchase goods from their homeland” (Tourism Demand Study, 2015,18)30. Outside of the
constraints, there is great potential in the market.

4.1.7.5 Impact on the Transport sector
In relations to the transport sector, the Ministry of Transport and Works was asked several
questions to ascertain whether, this policy decision would have impacted positively or negatively on its
sector. They were asked to express what impacts they envisioned that gastronomy would have had on
the operations of their departments and agencies, and the response that came back was both positive
and negative impacts. Though the representative from the Transport Ministry did not foresee any need
for changes in their existing policies and or regulations, it was acknowledged that the transport operators
(who falls under the purview of the Transport Ministry) will require a revision of the current
route/destination assignment. In addition, the following question was asked six of the participants
“...With the current focus on improving the country’s road network through highway development, do
you believe that some of the possible gastronomic experiences may be lost due to highway
development?”. Of the six that were asked this question, only two responded “Yes”. The representative
from the Transport Ministry, who responded yes, positioned that it was of their view that some of the
possible gastronomic experiences may be lost due to highway development. This position was also
supported by one of the representatives from the Planning Institute of Jamaica, suggesting that.

30

For more information on all the findings of the study, a copy can be accessed at
https://www.mot.gov.jm/page/tourism-demand-study-0

103

“..proper road networks and infrastructure create accessibility. With poor
roads and signage, persons may not be able to find places or feel
comfortable traveling to these places” [sic]
-

Participant #16

However, whilst two others supported part A of participant #16’s response, participant #13 partially
disagreed with part b of the claim suggesting that:
“despite the fact that new development has taken place, Jamaicans will still
travel the old route just to experience the food (not just local for the tourist
as well)”
-

Participant #13

-

Participant #4

“highway development would increase access”

With the Ministry focusing on ‘building a hub to have a multicultural experience’, was asked ‘how
does the Ministry plan to involve other sectors that are impacted directly or indirectly such as the
Ministries of Health, Agriculture, National Security, Transportation and Local government? The officer
representing the Ministry suggested that:
“Through the Tourism Linkages Network, a division of the Tourism
Enhancement fund, an agency of the Ministry of Tourism... [will be]...
consulting other ministries/agencies about the plans being
undertaken by the ministry, focusing on key areas of collaboration to
develop our tourism product, such as the exploration of technological
breakthroughs to improve food security and gastronomic tourism to
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the country, improving security and visitor confidence, as well as the
training and certification of tourism service workers. All initiatives
are undertaken only after consultations and planning across a
multitude of ministries”. [sic]
-

The Ministry of Tourism

When a similar question was posed to the other participants enquiring about what improvements are
needed for greater collaboration with other Government Agencies and private entities, to improve the
current situation for this initiative? The collective responses as seen in table 4-2, echoed several calls for
consultation, coordination, and collaboration with all interested parties which include both public and
private sector to ensure that there is a united front with decisive actions as to how it should be all
executed.

105

AGENCY

RESPONSES

table 4-2: An illustration of the collective responses on what was needed to improve greater
coloration between entities

4.2 Summary
In summary, this study has identified several positive influences that were envisioned for Jamaica
based on the pursuit of gastronomic tourism as a tourism lure. These activities range from economic
development to the potential for the recognition of additional gastronomic centres that are deserving the
attention, as well as the possibility of improving the agricultural sector to meet the demands of the
industry whilst it continues to supply the local market. Separate and apart from the positive spin-offs from
using gastronomy as a tourism lure, several internal gaps were identified that needs addressing if Jamaica
is to benefit from gastronomic tourism. These gaps, though some were not in the view of the majority,
were significant enough to be considered on the part of all stakeholders in order to have an effective
106

management system that will guide the process for the future development of the sector. Some of these
gaps were identified as institutional development, interaction relating to the intragovernmental dialogic
process as well as government to the private sector, and that of the lack of investment in local resources
leading to the current state of the sector to name a few.
Other from the above observations, the study also identified that most of the participants had
some knowledge of gastronomy whether by its correct scientific name ‘gastronomy’ or the more
commonly used expression ‘food tourism’. Despite this fact, however, what was interesting to note was
that irrespective of their knowledge, unless they worked within the sector or had some increased
interaction with its associated activities; they were generally unaware of the full extent of the full range
of gastronomy. This lack of knowledge may pose a possible challenge on the part of the Local Authorities,
being that, if they are generally unaware of these activities, it will be difficult for them to adequately
process and properly guide investors on what is expected for them when making the requisite applications
for consideration. It was clear that most participants saw Jamaica benefiting from this new venture to use
the unique blend of the island’s cultural diet as a tourist lure; with hopes that the economy (both formal
and informal) would benefit from increase traffic especially those that bring foreign exchange to the host
community or establishment.
With the agricultural sector positioned to benefit from gastronomic tourism, it is hoped that the
interest of the smaller farmers will be protected which includes making provisions for increased access to
special funding to aid in the development of their operations, which inevitably will contribute to increasing
employment and improvement in the output from the sector. The opportunity to capitalize on the
potential of the agricultural sector to improve the quality and quantity of local produce is critical for
reducing the leakage through importation. If done properly, local farmers and other support sectors
(retail, hardware supplies, manufacturers, processing plant etc.) will inevitably benefit, narrowing the gap
107

and reducing these economics leakages. What was also highlighted in this study was the need to increase
dialogue not just between government entities, but between the government and the private sector. This
dialogue is necessary for establishing a solid partnership with investors seeking to establish a business in
the country for tourism reasons. For the agricultural sector, if the government of Jamaica would be the
lobbying voice alongside the Jamaica Hotel and Tourist Association, it is possible to improve the
relationship between the local farmers and the hoteliers. Taking from the 2015 Tourism Demand Study
that spoke about the centralized body that dictates where the hotels get their produce from. This has
become an opportunity for both the Ministry of Tourism and the Ministry of Industry, Commerce,
Agriculture and Fisheries, through their respective departments and agencies to lobby on behalf of local
farmers with the hotel chains, to create the avenue for increasing supply of local produce to these hotel
chains. Not only should it be a part of the criteria to have a quota for ground produce to be accepted into
their hotels but the possibility of having these hoteliers contribute to the sector for their benefit and that
of the local agricultural sector; whether it be through financial support, technical support or even through
supplying the industry through MICAF with the requisite equipment needed to improve output as an
example. This support would aid in addressing the concern of the competition that local farmers face with
the much larger suppliers.
Other from the impacts on the agricultural sector, it was highlighted that the hoteliers were
having increased competition with alternate accommodation offerings with the rise of Airbnb. This was
positioned based on the notion that tourists are seeking more immersive experiences that were not
forthcoming from these existing facilities. Therefore, tourists are turning towards local Airbnb
accommodations that provide the opportunity to experience the local culture. What was critical to note
about this revelation was the fact that there is a concern for the safety of locals and tourists alike based
on the rise in criminal activities. This revelation was corroborated in a visitor satisfaction survey that was
108

undertaken by the Jamaica Tourist Board in 2017. The survey revealed that security was a major concern
for tourists, and a part the security concern was the issue of harassment from the transport operators,
vendors, and the homeless that influenced the inclination to not want to return to the island (“Visitor
Satisfaction Survey”, 2017). If the government is truly focused on building a hub to experience a
multicultural experience for gastronomic activities, the concerns among others need to be addressed.
Without the participation of the Ministry of Health and Wellness and the Ministry of National Security,
the study was unable to truly see the full extent of the intragovernmental dialogic process or lack thereof.
Besides, with the absence of these two Ministries, the study was unable to determine whether they would
be impacted greatly by this new opportunity that gastronomy had to offer to Jamaica.

109

CHAPTER 5

5.1 Discussion
The importance of the tourism sector has been echoed in so many ways throughout the body of
this research paper, illustrating its impacts both positively and negatively, on the culture and heritage of
the host destination and its people. This demonstration has included the showcasing of economic
potential that the industry has to offer to a nation’s GDP, along with its capacity to engender local
economic development programs for rural as well as small disenfranchised communities, and by extension
small and medium enterprises that thrive from either direct or indirect interactions with the tourism
sector (Green et al., 2008; Giampiccoli et al., 2012, Pop 2016; Testa et al., 2019; Chiriko, 2020). Conversely,
the literature identified several gaps that solidified the need for great care to be taken when seeking to
sustain the true potential of the tourism industry, especially when considering gastronomy as a tourism
lure (Busby et al., 2000; Halpern et al., 2011; Opperman, 2015; Pop 2016). Thus, many theories and
concepts were examined such as the ‘Commodification of Culture’ and ‘Creative Destruction’, specifically
when juxtaposed with the ‘Tourist Typology’ (ranging from the cultural to the gastronomical tourist
typology), and ‘Authenticity’; all with the view of seeking to understand the impact(s) of gastronomy on
the tourism industry.
Outside of the pros and cons of gastronomy as a tourism driver. The overall purpose of this study
was fixed on understanding the Jamaican context, concerning the implementation of a policy directive to
use gastronomy as a strategic tool in achieve the five pillars of tourism growth for Jamaica - which was
developed by the Ministry of Tourism, Jamaica - and its impact on cross-sectors policy interaction between
key government bodies and also the private sector. Arising from the study, was evidence of dialogue
between the Ministry of Tourism (MOT) and other government bodies and the private sector. However,
this study has also revealed that there was a gap in the communication process in the sense that though
110

the Ministry of Tourism made some form of contact with other government bodies and the private sector,
it was clear that a number of the key Ministries and agencies that would have played a significant role in
regulating and monitoring the associated activities that are projected to surface as a result of this new
venture, were omitted from the initial discussions to use gastronomy as a tourism driver (whether by an
error of omission or by a deliberate act). Outside of the Ministry of Industry, Investment, Agriculture and
Fisheries; the Jamaica Hotel and Tourist Association; the St Thomas Municipal Corporation and; The
Jamaica Co-operative Automobile and Limousine Tours Limited (JCAL); all other participants stated that
they were never contacted by the Ministry of Tourism regarding any such consultation concerning the use
of gastronomy as a tourism driver, which included the Ministry of Local Government and Community
Development, Local Authorities and The Ministry of Transport and Works to name a few. Besides, though
it was not clear as to whether the Ministry of National Security and the Ministry of Health were consulted
by the Tourism Ministry - since efforts to have them participate in the study were unsuccessful. According
to the response from the participant representing MOT, neither of the two Ministries were listed as being
contacted for consultation. If this is the case, it would be then short-sighted on the part of the organisers
of the tourism linkages committee in the sense that, the health and safety of all patrons are paramount
to the success of this decision.
This dialogue is crucial for addressing the concerns of health and safety of patrons, especially for
those concerns that were established in the visitor satisfaction study conducted by the Jamaica Tourist
Board in 2017; so that the brand being promoted can be protected. Other from the health and safety of
patrons, meeting international standards with respect to accommodation, sanitation (i.e., rest stops for
visitors etc.) and the ease of doing business (for new developers) is of great concern for the government
of Jamaica. Therefore, it would have been prudent on the part of the organizers of this steering committee
to ensure that the respective bodies that will be playing a major role in achieving this overall goal is
included in the dialogue for the execution of this policy. Though it is understood that there may be areas
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that are not relevant to all sectors, and as such, the exclusion of the listed agencies above is
acknowledged. Beyond the obvious reasons, that were derived from the notion that tourism has proven
to be an effective tool to improve the economies of nations and small communities. The policy initiative
from one government entity can impact on the policies and procedures of others as seen in the above
paragraph, which also included those within the private sector. From these two key areas, the substance
of this paper was realized. Emanating from the data collected, it was clear to see that the idea to use
gastronomy as a tourism driver, was a collaborated effort between the government and the private sector
for Jamaica. Also, it was clear that Jamaica’s focused on using food as a tourism driver was viewed to have
endless possibilities for all sectors, even though some may be more advantaged than others.
On the strength of the above paragraph, and as mentioned in Chapter’s one (1) and four (4), of
this research paper, there has been an increased desire for a new sensory experience by tourist, with the
intension of immersing oneself in the culture of the people – particularly that of gastronomy. With this
renewed focus, matched with the exploration of the theories and concepts as mentioned above. This
study has been able to capture elements of the reasons for this desire, as well as it was able to identify
the plans by the Ministry of Tourism, Jamaica and its respective departments and agencies to use
gastronomy as a viable tourism offering albeit that it comes with its challenges. Based on the research
objectives and research questions, it was helpful to draw on the resources of the literature, which aided
in understanding the motivations of the host destination, for strategically using the cultural offerings of
Jamaica (to include the diet, the people, and a unique mix of multiculturalism) in establishing a hub for
enjoying a variety of dishes, rum and rum blends to name a few as a means of exploring Jamaican culture.
The Appleton Estate in the parish of St. Elizabeth, proved to be a suitable example of how agri-tourism is
beneficial to Jamaican gastronomy. The estate produces its ingredients to produce its famous Appleton
rum from the sugar cane that is grown and harvested on its estate among other ingredients that are used
in the rum-making process. This example epitomizes Testa et al.’s (2019) example of “shortening the
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distance between local food systems and the consumer” (Testa et al., 2019, p. 1). This attraction can easily
feed the desires of all categories of tourist and gastronomic typologies being that the offerings available
at this destination have a package for everyone irrespective of their level of interest.
Outside of the positives that the tourism industry has to offer. The origins of this desire to find a
suitable solution that would generate revenue for a country, especially for those who resides within the
rural communities; has largely been a reaction to the impacts of globalization and the over-reaching arms
of the capitalist system of the free market. Ramsey et al. (2007), in the article “Route-based Tourism
Development and the ‘Turkey Trail’ in Manitoba, Canada”, expressed that “the rural economy, particularly
Manitoba, have been impacted by globalization, and the influence of integrated world systems driven by
the free market, accelerating many ongoing rural trends such as depopulation, growth in farm sizes,
growth in equipment size, a transformation in the marketing systems of crops [regarding grain elevators
and railways), and an acceleration in the industrialisation of agriculture” (pp.87-88). Like Manitoba,
Jamaica’s rural economy and by extension the small post productive communities were not immune to
these conditions as expressed by Ramsey et al. (2007) (Meikle-Yaw, 2005; Barker, 2012; Weis, 2004).
Based on the illustration of the impact that globalization had on Manitoba’s primary industry;
Instead of Jamaica’s farm size increasing and becoming more industrialized as was the case for Manitoba,
what happened instead was the reverse. Most of these properties, that were predominantly used for
growing sugar canes, or were not necessarily cultivated but were suitable for grazing; were being
transformed into residential, commercial, or other land uses contrary to its original state. This
transformation, however, came as a result of the strategic dissolution, of Jamaica’s critical sectors through
the reformation of government policies, exposing the nation to the free-market economy when it was in
its fragile state - unable to compete with the more seasoned and powerful industrialized nations. As such,
the agricultural sector collapsed, as a result of the many interventions of the International Monetary Fund
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(IMF) and other multi-national agencies, who used the power of financial aid to manipulate the economic
market; knowing that the country was unable to compete in price and volume with theses larger traders
(Barker, 2012; Black, 2001; Weis, 2004). Most of the Industries from the primary sector were also divested
to privately owned foreign entities that mismanaged the operations, causing it to collapse and lose
production31, especially as it relates to Jamaica’s sugar production (Jamaica: Sugar Annual, 2019, 3 May;
Sugar Production set to fall 20%, 2019, 17 December; Monymusk Sugar Factory, 2019, 24 January;
Monymusk closure Killing Us, 2019, 02 October). In acknowledging this fact, Jamaica needed an avenue
to fight back against the changes in the industry finding new ways to sustain these industries. With tourism
being a successful facilitator for economic growth, it was clear to see why tourism is a top priority for
economic development (Coccossis, 2009 cited in Shakeela A.,332; Pérez Gálvez, 2017; and Özdemir et al.,
2017,). In support of the above discourse, it is even clearer for having an effective and inclusive system,
that fosters crosstalk between the public and private sectors, taking into consideration all areas that will
be impacted and having the right members to shed light on how they plan to achieve the overall goal
within their area of expertise. The need for this symbiotic relationship will be displayed in the examples
illustrated hereafter.

5.2 Accommodation
In referencing the tourism Ministry’s response in chapter four (4) as part of the findings. With
gastronomy having a positive impact on accommodation and employment, it was interesting to note that
more interests were projecting towards off-resort stays especially with the rise of AirBnbs. This is a clear
indication that the industry is changing along with the interest of the tourist. With the ability to spend
more, Pérez Gálvez et al. (2017) posits that those who travel for gastronomic reasons are usually quite

31

Production statistics can be obtained from the Sugar Industry Authority’s website:
https://www.jamaicasugar.org/sugar-cane-production.html

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demanding about the quality and authenticity of the local gastronomy (pp. 606). These tourists are more
interested in the experience of the local dishes of a destination as it creates an avenue for them to get to
learn more about the local culture (Kastenholz & Davis 1999, Gyimothy et al., 200 Joppe et al., 2001 cited
in Sormaz et al., 2016, 726). This is why the hoteliers need to re-examine their offerings, whilst seeking to
broaden the strategic alliances with local establishments that can complement their operations. This
position was echoed by participant #4 in responding to a question that sought to understand the foreseen
impacts of gastronomy on the operational policies of the public and private sector, for which the
participant stated:
“Private entities that focused on one type of tourism will be required to
diversify their offers to compete with new and upcoming entities offering
gastronomy. However, a good strategy to keep their business relevant is to
create partnerships with other entities offering gastronomy….”
Following the information provided in the study as it relates to gastronomy having a positive
impact on accommodation; it was evident that there is a repositioning of tourist interest as it relates to
their [the tourist] experience and the accommodation types that would grant them the opportunities to
achieve their cultural goals. Those who want to experience more “authentic experiences” as well as to
find an alternate option to the regular offerings by hotel chains have sought out the avenue of Airbnbs
and other opportunities. It is also evident that the Ministry of Tourism has welcomed the idea of Airbnb
taking off in the island; especially as it gives locals and the wider communities (especially rural
communities) a chance to showcase their culture and their heritage through a concept widely known as
community tourism. In a news article by the Jamaica gleaner (2018), we see that Jamaica has been on the
rise with Airbnb bookings, see excerpt below:

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“Jamaican hosts earned more than a billion dollars through accommodations bookings
website Airbnb last year, amid a 49 per cent rise in bookings that year, according to
information provided by the American company.
The booking service allows tourists the opportunity for stays in local communities and
cultural immersion32, long seen as an underserved area of the market in a tourism sector
populated by walled-off all-inclusive hotels.

‘With over 3,100 active hosts and 5,900 active listings on the island, Jamaica continues to
be one of Airbnb's largest and strongest markets in the Caribbean,’ said Carlos Munoz,
director of public policy and government affairs for Airbnb in the Latin America and
Caribbean.

‘In 2017,’ he said, ‘our hosts in Jamaica earned approximately US$9.4 million, representing
annual earnings of US$2,400 [Can$3,116.64] for a typical host.’”

-

(“Airbnb Bookings Spike”, 2018)

With this interest in off-resort stays, it was evident that the economic benefits would be extended to
other areas of the economy, which included the informal sector as well. However, this should in no way
be interpreted as a direct boycotting of hotel stays, but rather it should be interpreted as a need to focus
on improving the offering and increasing the connections with a focus of diversifying the total experience.
The Minister of Tourism echoed this position when he addressed the attendees of the United Nations

32

Keeping in line with the observed interest in tourism travel being coupled with a growing desire to immerse
oneself in the cultural offerings of a people, with a specific interest in the cultural food; stepping away from the
usual sun, sand and sea (Kristensen et al., 2017; Šimić et al., 2016; OECD, 2009, UNWTO, 2012, cited in Chiriko,
2020).

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World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) Global conference at the Montego Bay Convention Centre in Rose
Hall St James, Jamaica on November 17, 2017. He stated in his address that
“it is important that Caribbean states understand that sustainable tourism must
mean inclusive growth that will expand economic benefits to the local
population…. The tourism sector must not only generate prosperity and wealth
for large hotel owners and service providers but must also help to preserve the
natural and cultural resources of the islands…It must also strengthen linkages
with other sectors of the economy, particularly the agricultural and
manufacturing sectors; strengthen the benefits derived from the industry by
local residents and communities”
-

(Local Population must benefit, 2017)33.

It was interesting to note that this shift in accommodation types and preferences, according to
Davis (2017), has seen Airbnb ‘democratizing the tourism industry’ opening new income streams for many
Jamaicans to do exactly what the Minister of Tourism exclaimed in his address to UNWTO’s Global
conference held at the Montego Bay Conference Centre, which was to encourage inclusive growth,
bringing economic benefits to the community; as part of the new Community Tourism Policy And Strategy
(“Local Population must benefit”, 2017). In addition to that Davis (2017) highlighted that 59% of the
Jamaican host were females, with 70% of host falling between the ages of 30 – 59 with an average age of
50 years old (“Airbnb hosts in Jamaica welcomed 89,500 guests”, 2018). The importance of highlighting
this data, was simply to infer that those who purse the route of AirBnb as an income stream fall within
the age rage for Jamaica’s labour force. In addition, the fact that majority of the host were females,

33

For more information, you may view the article at http://jis.gov.jm/local-population-must-benefit-sustainabletourism-bartlett/

117

indicates that more Jamaican women are either owning homes, or tapping into other income streams in
an effort to sustain themselves and their families.
Separate and apart from the positive spin-offs from gastronomy, some obvious challenges that
were also noted were, whilst locals may be benefitting from this new venture, there are other implications
of the increase in the Airbnb business. The President of the Realtors Association of Jamaica, Howard
Johnson Jr, advised the Financial Gleaner that:
“so popular has the facility become locally that he has been contacted by several strata
management companies who have requested advice on how by-laws can be adjusted to
limit the influx of guests.

That request was driven by fears that undesirables could negatively impact property
values. But there is also a side of the property market that expects positive outcomes.

“There are mixed reactions to the Airbnb market. It’s a great opportunity for the
consumer to get an experience and they can tailor their experience. However, it has been
disruptive. It has unlocked the potential for persons to purchase an apartment such as a
two-bedroom two-bathroom unit in New Kingston for $18 million to $20 million and
collect daily and weekly rentals,” Johnson told the Financial Gleaner.”

-

(“Airbnb Bookings Spike”, 2018)

The overall issues that have popped up as referenced by Howard Johnson Jr, is that it
creates a problem in the real estate market not just for realtors, not just for property
managers, but also for young professionals and students who need to find a place to settle
until they are able to get their own. In addition to that, it poses a problem also to existing
residents, being that some of the patrons are “very disruptive over the three or five-day period
that they are there” [sic] (Johnson as referenced in “Airbnb Bookings Spike”, 2018).
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Consequently, the issues highlighted above merits the following questions to be asked. Who
can become a host? What are the requirements of becoming a host on Airbnb’s website? How
will the owners of Airbnb seek to ensure that these requirements are met?

According to gigworker.com, “anybody can become an Airbnb host” (Airbnb
Requirements, 2020). Apparently, Airbnb allows for several types of listing opportunities
ranging from ‘home’, ‘apartments’, ‘tents’, ‘RVs’ and even ‘treehouses’ to name a few (Airbnb
Requirements, 2020). In addressing the second question, the basic requirements for each host,
that are enforced by Airbnb are that guests must be provided with basic amenities that should
be readily available to them; the host needs to have a high responsive rate; the host should
accept reservation request; and they should avoid cancellations and maintain a high overall
rating (Airbnb Requirements, 2020). As it pertains to abiding by local laws, though in the article
it did not suggest that it was mandatory but rather more like a guide, Airbnb gives sound advice
to all their potential members prior to becoming an official host. Some of these advice points
the potential host to get acquainted with local taxes or business requirements that may apply
to the host, and required permit(s) or registrations that the host may need to apply for or
adhere to, if the host lives in a rent-controlled or stabilized housing, that they contact their
local rent board before signing up (Airbnb Requirements, 2020; Responsible hosting in the
United States, 2020). In essence, though it may not be directly expressed that if the host does
not comply with theses guideline they can’t become a host, in my estimation it is inferred by
virtue of what was referenced earlier in their core expectations of a host. Whilst this provides
an avenue for patrons to benefit from the local culture in many ways, as well as it brings
additional income to local residents. The negative spin-offs are to be taken into consideration
being that if it is not controlled, it may cause additional strain on other services.
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The above paragraph brings this discussion back to the point of consultation between the Ministry
of Tourism with the Ministry of Local Government and community Development as well as the Local
Municipal Corporations. Since, Airbnb is on the rise in Jamaica, and in keeping with the information
provided by gigworker.com as it pertains to the responsibility of the host in ascertaining the right permits
and compliance documents. In as much as it is the responsibly of the local Authorities to ensure that
buildings are constructed to the standards of the Local Improvement Act (1914), The Town and Country
Planning Act (1958), The Building Act (2008) - which replaced The Parish Council’s Building Act (1908) and
The Kingston and St Andrew Building Act (1883) to name a few. Without dialogue as to where and how,
the Ministry of Tourism is planning on venturing. It would be difficult for the Municipal Corporations that
are already strapped for resources – based on the responses arising from the study- to effectively manage
all these new developments in their respective local, ensuring that these facilities meet the requirement
for changing the use of the building. Most of these facilities, from an Urban Planning perspective, will
require a Planning Permission, as they would have by law be considered as possibly undertaking
development based on what the Town and Country Planning Act (1958) considers to be development in
section 5 part 2 of Town and Country Planning Act, (1958) which is also in keeping with Schedule II parts
2- 4 and 6 of the said Act (pp.7; 46-48). This supports the reason why consultation is necessary between
government bodies for the smooth transition of policy directives and executions. With the Ministry
focusing on ‘building a hub to have a multicultural experience’, the representative from the MOT was
asked in the interview ‘how does the Ministry plan to involve other sectors that are impacted directly or
indirectly such as the Ministries of Health, Agriculture, National Security, Transportation and Local
government? The officer representing the Ministry suggested that:
“Through the Tourism Linkages Network, a division of the Tourism
Enhancement fund, an agency of the Ministry of Tourism... [will be]...
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consulting other ministries/agencies about the plans being
undertaken by the ministry, focusing on key areas of collaboration to
develop our tourism product, such as the exploration of technological
breakthroughs to improve food security and gastronomic tourism to
the country, improving security and visitor confidence, as well as the
training and certification of tourism service workers. All initiatives
are undertaken only after consultations and planning across a
multitude of ministries”.
When a similar question was posed to the other participants enquiring about what improvements are
needed for greater collaboration with other Government Agencies and private entities, to improve the
current situation for this initiative? The collective responses as seen in table 4-2, echoed several calls for
consultation, coordination, and collaboration with all interested parties which included both public and
private sector to ensure that there is a united front with decisive actions as to how it should be all
executed. This response clearly outlines, that there is a gap in the communication process that allowed
for serval key agencies to not be part of the initial planning process prior to the launch of this policy
decision.

5.3 Employment
From all that has been stated above, stemming from gastronomy’s impacts on the economy and
several sectors. It was evident in most of the responses that there is hope that this push to use food a tool
to bring tourist to the island, will bring employment to many Jamaicans from all sectors. Even though
several of the respondents suggest that gastronomy would benefit the formal economy, it was clear that
others saw even those from the informal economy benefiting from gastronomy as well. From the evidence
extracted from the assessment of both primary and secondary data, it was clear that the reach of
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gastronomy’s benefit ranged from those who sell fruits along the south coast of the island in locations
such as but not limited to the bog walk bypass in St Catherine and Scotts’ Pass in Clarendon; the Shrimp
Stop in Middle Quarters, St Elizabeth; Luana’s Jerk Centre & Sports Bar at a common stop for the Knutsford
bus station and Total gas station; and finally Scott’s Cove otherwise known as ‘border Fish’ again in St
Elizabeth – all of which are along the road alignment requiring no turn-offs. To support this claim, both
the Minister of Tourism Hon. Edmund Bartlett and Head of the Tourism Linkages Network Mrs. Carolyn
McDonald Riley, in separate media coverages, commented on how the informal economy would have
been impacted in a positive light. The Minister advised that MOT wants to see more investment in
restaurants and other ‘speciality areas such as coffee’, hinting on plans of expanding Buff Bay, in Portland
as Jamaica’s ‘Coffee Centre’. It is hoped that a trail will be created from Buff Bay leading up into the Blue
Mountain range, engendering a whole series of cottage industries34 and other economic spins-offs
(Tourism Pillars will Create Opportunities, 2017). On the other hand, Mrs. Carolyn McDonald Riley in an
interview with JIS35 argued that besides the fact that the tourists will benefit, even the “little man”36 will
also benefit from gastronomic tourism, “as it empowers persons who make up the value chain” (“Plans
Well Advanced to Market Jamaica”, 2017).
In reiterating what Minister Bartlett said as referenced earlier:
“It [the tourism sector] must also strengthen linkages with other sectors of

the economy, particularly the agricultural and manufacturing sectors;

34

According to Merriam Webster.com A cottage industry is defined as 1: an industry whose labour force consists
of family units or individuals working at home with their own equipment 2: a small and often informally organized
industry.
35
36

Jamaica Information Service
A local term used to describe an individual from the informal economic sector.

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strengthen the benefits derived from the industry by local residents and
communities”
-

(“Local Population must benefit”, 2017)

Going back to the section that addressed the matter of accommodation; according to Loop news 37 which
was supported and confirmed by several local media houses as referenced earlier, Jamaica is thriving in
the local tourism industry as it relates to home-sharing. The media house stated that for the year 2018,
approximately 89,500 guests booked stays through Airbnb, with having an average trip length of five days
(“Airbnb hosts in Jamaica welcomed 89,500 guest”, 2018). The article further suggested that 4,100 hosts
opened their doors to both locals and foreigners to a “diverse, inclusive and sustainable travel experience
in urban destinations such as Kingston, but also in rural areas or areas that typically benefit less from
tourist visits” (“Airbnb hosts in Jamaica welcomed 89,500 guests”, 2018). Beyond, the fact that Airbnb
provided an alternate income for Jamaicans it also provides the opportunity for employing housekeepers,
local guides and the like.
Home-sharing was one major benefit from gastronomy as seen in the above paragraph however,
there are others to benefit from this venture and some more directly than others. Daniel Grizzle, a farmer
and hotel operator in an interview with JIS News, echoed similar sentiments like that of the officers from
MICAF, JHTA and MOT all stemming from the insights from the tourism demand study. Mr. Grizzle
mentioned the prospects of the agricultural and manufacturing sectors to capitalize on the tourism sector
in providing high-valued fruits and vegetables; reducing imports and saving on the “needed foreign
exchange” (“Agro-Tourism Stakeholders Welcome Gastronomy Thrust”, 2017). As referenced by Claudia
Gardner (2017) in her article on behalf of JIS entitled ‘Agro-Tourism Stakeholders Welcome Gastronomy

37

An online media house that compiles News briefs and videos from the Caribbean and the world.

123

Thrust’. Mr. Gardner exclaimed that ‘stakeholders, especially those within the more rural western
parishes, welcomed this push for gastronomy being that it has the potential to transform rural
communities whilst turning agricultural produce into a true powerhouse’ (“Agro-Tourism Stakeholders
Welcome Gastronomy Thrust”, 2017). Mr. Grizzle as cited by Gardner (2017), explained that he sees
marketing gastronomy as a practical move by Jamaica, being that the Caribbean cuisine in his estimation
has taken off across Europe. Mr. Grizzle in illustrating a logical pathway for farmers, suggesting that if
farmers have a guaranteed market, then the rural economy would take a turn for the better; being that
‘tourist consumes three times as much fruit than the average Jamaican would normally consume (“AgroTourism Stakeholders Welcome Gastronomy Thrust”, 2017). Supporting these claims, Vice President of
the Hanover-based Veteran Farmers Alliance, Collin Johnson added that easier access to funding will
greatly aid the industry stating that it is set to rejuvenate the sector in a domino effect. His view is that
people currently don’t have a plan, but when they see the tourist, it will give them the encouragement to
push-on especially if they are able to access capital to get them started38.

5.4 Visitor Satisfaction Study
With gastronomy positioned to benefit all walks of life, like any good plan, there are expected
challenges that can be avoided, whilst others will just have to take its course. However, the reality of the
situation has been brought to light for Jamaica in a “visitor satisfaction survey” (2017), prepared by the
Jamaica Tourist Board’s (JTB), Research and Marketing Intelligence Unit. This survey was done with the
following objectives in mind; that is to:
•

determine the level of visitor satisfaction with respect to tourist attractions, facilities and
services.

•

38

determine how Jamaica was rated in comparison to other destinations visited by the visitors.

For more information see http://jis.gov.jm/agro-tourism-stakeholders-welcome-gastronomy-thrust/

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•

ascertain the importance of various factors that influence the visitor’s decision to vacation in
Jamaica.

•

rate their actual visit and compare it to what was expected.

•

rate the quality of services at the accommodation in which the visitors stayed; and

•

determine the demographic, economic and geographic data of tourists departing Jamaica during
the time of the survey”.
-

(Jamaica Tourist Board, 2017, 3).

According to the study, “5,130 interviews were conducted in 2017 on departing passengers for
which 1,282 were conducted at the Norman Manly International Airport (NMIA) and 3,848 at the
Sangster’s International Airport (MBJ). 64% of the respondents were from the United States of America
with the second-highest emanating from Canada accounting for (22%) and 7% from the United Kingdom.
With 34% being in the age group 35-49 years and a quarter between 25-34 years old; 63% of the total
participants were female and 60% married with a third being single.” (Jamaica Tourist Board, 2017, 5).
Most of the respondents were repeat visitors accounting for (53%) with Canada accounting for (55%) of
the total share of repeat visitors. In assessing the motivation, perception and preferences of visitors, the
study revealed that most of the visitors “especially those from the US (54%), Germany (77%), Latin
America (57%), the Caribbean (58%)” to name a few “used the internet to book their travel and make
reservations as opposed to using Travel Agents. However, those who used Travel Agents came from

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Canada (45%), the UK (45%) and Italy (69%)” (Jamaica Tourist Board, 2017, 6). The findings of the study
illustrated that there was general satisfaction with Jamaica as a tourist destination with fifty-eight per
cent thought it was somewhat better and far better than expected. However, they stated numerous
“reasons for being disappointed or
somewhat disappointed that were
captured

under

the

following

themes namely pricing, attitude,
harassment,
aggression,

accommodation,
the

resort

areas,

infrastructure, shopping, safety,
excursions

and

accessibility”39.

Though “70% were very satisfied
and 25% satisfied”; with the
following factors standing out for
Jamaica’s lure was that of “scenery
(94%), culture (93%), beaches
(90%), the attitude of people (88%),
and music (88%)”. The reasons that
were

stated

for

not

being

interested to revisit the island were
profound that they should not be
ignored especially if the industry

39

Table 6-1: Illustrating the negative feedback from tourist during a Visitor Satisfaction
Survey conducted in 2017.

The complete report can be accessed at https://www.jtbonline.org/report-and-statistics/survey-reports/

126

wants to improve. See excerpts from the document in Table 6-1. It should be noted that specific responses
were used as the list was exhaustive and some were not directly beneficial to the study on gastronomy.

5.5 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY
This research paper has identified several important concepts that are worth undertaking future
studies to bring light to some of the gaps that this paper may have identified. It opens the room for more
ethnographic studies, especially as it relates to the impact that gastronomy has on local rural communities
whether it is seen as a ‘saving grace’ or a ‘curse’. Some of these future studies are:
1) There is also the aspect of survival during the off-peak season.
2) Exploring gastronomy’s impact on the small farming sector
a. Aspects of this study should focus on the available resources or lack thereof for this group.
3) There is the concern of local job losses to expatriates.
a. What is being done to protect the local labour force?
4) Considering this recent pandemic, how does this impact on the tourism sector?
5) Exploration Agritourism/vacation farms in Jamaica with a view of revitalizing the agricultural
sector and encouraging small farmers to diversify their offering for Jamaicans and tourist alike
who may be interested in this venture.
Outside of these few research ideas, and in relation to the impact that the real estate markets are facing
as it concerns the rental of properties. With the rise of Airbnb’s in Jamaica, it is envisioned that the Realtor
Association of Jamaica, the Airbnb’s local representatives, the Commission of Strata Corporations and the
respective property managers for gated communities all come together to devise a strategy that will
lessen the impacts of average young professional and the student travelling from afar.
As mentioned in the previous section, the results of this research will foster the need to explore
other aspects of this emerging concept of gastronomy as the new tourist lure for the Island of Jamaica
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more specifically on the other side of the policy (after implementation) among other aspects of the
emerging concept. It is expecting that the project results will determine all aspects of gastronomy that
the Ministry of tourism will be focusing on exploring to boost the platform that gastronomy provides.
With this understanding, a clearer view of how cross-sector policies and their impact of the local economy
(both formal and informal) will also be identified. This document may impact policy initiatives and the
need for exploring the implications (positive and negatives) of establishing gastronomic centres,
community Cross-Ministries in relation to policy development and inclusion, building alliances and strong
relationships with the private sector in promoting, establishing, and managing new and existing ventures
with respect to gastronomy and other tourist initiatives. Finally, it is expected that this research paper will
give new insights into the potential of small Island developing states in creating a viable and valuable
product that will boost their economy.

5.6 PROJECTED PROJECT OUTCOMES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
With the declaration of Devon’s House Ice crème parlour as the first official Gastronomic centre
in Jamaica on June 1, 2017, it is envisioned that the some of the more established venues, that were
identified in the study as well as other well-known and established facilities that were not listed will be
established in a similar fashion by the Ministry of tourism. Centres such as Jerky’s Jerk Centre in St. Anns,
Boston Jerk centre, in Portland, Chelsey’s Jerk centre, Kingston any many more; also, Gloria’s restaurant
(known specifically for its wide array of seafood dishes) in Port Royal – being that Port royal will also see
the development of a new pier that is estimated to have stopover tourist via cruise ships. These centres
are well-established venues that have been on the market to locals and tourist that has gone beyond the
hotel exposure through personal visits, business trips etc. Outside of the establishment of Gastronomic
centres, it is hoped that this research will engender further studies in exploring the other end of the policy
spectrum that is those who will be impacted by the policies and regulations established for individuals
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and entities alike, that are planning to capitalize on Jamaica’s gastronomy as a business venture. These
individuals are the small business, the local farmer, those within the transport sector, and those from the
informal economy (who are the most vulnerable of the group).
In addressing the concerns echoed earlier in the study regarding the lack of resources to support
the tourism and agricultural sectors in building capacity. Several useful strategies were identified during
a review of the tourism strategies of a Crown Agency from the province of Manitoba, Canada known as
Travel Manitoba. These strategies, namely a) the implementation of the 96/4 plan40, b) the classification
of their tourism product under the heading of ‘Boulders, Rock and Pebbles’41 to identify, those sights,
events and activities that either stand out as being significant or form a support role to a larger event, and
c) Connecting with local communities, expanding the partnership – opening up the scope of stakeholders
from just the resonating with hoteliers/motel owners, local travel agents, the chamber of commerce to
name a few – to include local municipalities, community groups and voluntary organization; are critical
for building the sector as everyone would have their role to play, making the efforts a bit more effortless
when implementing new projects. This I believe is the true meaning of supporting community tourism. In
an effort to strengthen the partnership and providing local assistance to the market and the diaspora at
large, I believe this study will aid in encouraging such a strategy based on the fact that it strengthens the
industry especially as it trickles down to other sectors. In addition, it is expected that more will be done
to improve on the level of communication that takes place between the Government and the private
sector as well as government vs government.

40

A Sustainable Tourism Investment developed by Travel Manitoba. The Plan 96/4 model dedicates 4% of
provincial tourism tax revenues to Travel Manitoba and as tourism revenues grow, the capacity of Travel Manitoba
to partner and invest in innovative marketing programs increases (“Government of Manitoba”, n.d.; “Provincial
Tourism Strategy for Manitoba", n.d.).
41
An analogy of describing visitor’s experiences by categorizing them in specific groups. This analogy allows their
partners to categorical look at all their tourism offerings and separate them according to level of importance –
based on frequent visits or reasons for travel-, their uniqueness, and whether they are able to support another
activity or stand alone, be the main focus for travel and more (Travel Manitoba Brand Tool kit, n.d.).

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With the revelation of the reasons as to why visitors were unwilling to return to the destination,
outside of the fact of price. The critical areas such as the perception of safety and accommodation are
critical areas that I believe needs great attention, especially if Jamaica is seeking to promote the island’s
cuisine by venturing into the communities to experience the culture of Jamaica. As it relates to the cost
of products, attractions, and events. The high expense, that the tourist and locals alike must face if they
want to enjoy the local experience will be one of the major deterrents to the market. Though the branding
may be effective in its own right when persons realize how expensive it is to get around and to enjoy the
local dishes, the hard work that was put in to establish these markets will suffer a great deal, as visitor
reviews, can have a damaging effect on the quality of the marketed brand. Outside of this fact, the safety
of the patrons is the responsibility of both the Ministry of National Security and the Ministry of Health
along with their respective departments and agencies. For example, the MNS has the responsibility to
ensure that the issue of protecting the tourist from the unwanted criminal elements that prey on the
unassuming tourist is their top priority as well as those from the diaspora who are returning to the
country. In order for patrons to have that feeling of a fair ‘sense of security’ whilst walking outside of the
confines of all–inclusive hotels, they have to see the presence of the security forces in such a way that it
doesn’t take away from the setting of the tourist district but rather compliments it. On the matter of food
quality and safety, MOH through its agencies need also to be vigilant in this regard being that several food
establishments may be operating illegally, putting visitors at risk to food poising as an example.
Separate from the above notion, the Ministry of Tourism along with the Jamaica Hotel and Tourist
Association will be required to regulate the prices that are offered to tourist and locals alike. This
Collaboration can simply be addressed by having a dialogue with the Ministry of National Security and the
Ministry of finance as it pertains to import tax and other duties that are applied to products and good
entering the island. This position is expected to give MOT some powers in regulating the ballooning of
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prices for locally made products as well as imported products. The Ministry of Transport will also have to
step in to assist in setting guidelines for regulating transportation cost that impacts the sector. They will
also have to collaborate with the Ministry of Tourism in going through specialized training for those who
are directly involved in the sector. Finally, the local government and the local Municipal Corporations,
have the responsibility to ensure that all facilities that are establish consequent to the roll out of
gastronomy, are done according to the Planning Standards and the respective Building codes established
by the government of Jamaica for the safety of both the staff and patrons. Therefore, it is important for
effective communication to be had between government bodies as well as government to private bodies,
because if the key agencies don’t have a clear understanding of the true intension of the Ministry of
Tourism and their apparent role in the web of gastronomic tourism.

5.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS
In concluding, this research was pursued with the intension of understanding the shift from the
traditional tourism lure namely the sun, sand, and the sea, to the renewed focus on gastronomic offerings.
In addition, the researcher wanted to understand the impact of this change on cross-sector policy
interaction between the public and private sector. This is against the premise that there is a perceived
communication gap within the government of Jamaica; especially where the roles of the respective
entities may overlap in one way or another. With the understanding that this approach to pursuing
gastronomy as a policy directive is new; and with the understanding that the decision of one entity in
government can have serious implications on another. It was important to contemplate the best research
design that would be suitable based on the limited time to complete the study, the possibility of the lack
of information that may be available in Jamaica to support the study.
On the strength of the above paragraph, and with the fact that tourism sector, being the 4th fastest
growing industry in the world, has seen a prodigious growth in the industry within last decade (Šimić et
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al., 2015; Vong, 2015; Travel Manitoba, 2019; Chiriko, 2020). Combined with the increased desire for
immersing oneself in the culture of a people (Kristensen et al., 2017; Šimić et al., 2016); on the matter of
who was the driving force behind the policy decision to use gastronomy as a tourist lure for Jamaica, the
study has shown that it was a combined effort from both the public and private sector. In addition, it was
also highlighted in the findings that gastronomy was not new to Jamaica, however, the decision to have
dedicated resources for promoting gastronomy, however, seems be to a new focus for the Ministry of
Tourism along with its partnering agencies and entities. As it pertains to the impact of the policy decision
to use gastronomy as a marketing tool to bring tourist to Jamaica. With the focus of understanding how
this decision has impacted cross-policy interaction, a series of questions were asked to determine a) If
they were contacted by the Ministry of Tourism prior the launch on gastronomy as an official policy
decision; b) What impact was envisioned about the impact this policy decision would have had on their
daily operations; c) whether or not they had any existing policies that would have required some
adjustment(s) to meet the demand on the sector when it picks up; and d) What improvements they
believed were needed to ensure that greater collaboration between government private and entities was
achieved, ensuring that this venture doesn’t fail.
In responding to the above questions, what the study had revealed was that five (5) of the
fourteen (14) participants that participated in section three of the online survey, advised that they were
either contacted by MOT or knew that there was some form of public consultation with the public prior
to the launch of gastronomy as a policy decision. The remaining nine (9) were not contacted nor were
they aware of any public consultation that took place. This information can only infer that there is a
communication gap between government bodies and the private sector being that those who were
contacted, with the exception of the Municipal Corporation, were contacted based on their connection
with the sector namely the Jamaica Hotel and Tourist Association, The Jamaica Co-operative Automobile
and Limousine Tours Ltd. (JCAL) and the Ministry of Industry, Commerce, Agriculture, and Fisheries. The
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Study further indicated that majority of the participants believed their daily operations would not have
been impacted negatively, by this new policy to use gastronomy as a tourism driver; nor would any of
their existing policies require any adjustments to prepare them for what was to come.
However, of the few that believed that they would have been impacted negatively by this policy
decision. The concerns that were echoed were that of insufficient human resources – based on their
existing scope of duties and the geographical layout of their respective jurisdiction for monitoring. – with
the fear of increased duties, they believed to effectively perform their duties, they would require an
increase in their staff compliment. On the matter of whether they had any existing policies that would
have required some adjustment(s) to meet the demand on the sector when it picks up. Once again, most
believed that there was no need for any adjustments. However, of the few that had a difference in
opinion, what was stated was that the current acts and regulations were outdated as a result, they
believed that it would be prudent (with or without the introduction of gastronomy) to update these legal
documents so that effective and meaningful enforcements can be executed when necessary. When asked
what improvements were needed to ensure that greater collaboration between government and private
entities are achieved to sustain the sector. The recommendations that came back, for those who
answered, called for improved and greater coordinating efforts on the part of the Ministry of Tourism and
its affiliate agencies in getting the remaining government entities up to speed on all plans and programs.
This came up as an important recommendation under the understanding the government entities wanted
to have a united front when executing their respective duties. Another recommendation was to explore
other territories that have an existing model that is working, with the view of seeing what can be taken
away and adopted to suit the Jamaican context. The officer from the Ministry of Transport posited that
“greater coordination on the part of gastronomic stakeholders with the transport professionals to
facilitate and access and connectivity among key locations”.
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Outside of answering the above research questions, the study also revealed that – through the
increases in the tourism literature coupled with the responses from the participants, and with the increase
in media highlights – consequent to the fact that the tourism sector has been rapidly changing, it was
evident that, any host destination that wishes to remain competitive, they would have to improve on the
offering and make strategic alliances even if it means to upgrade a number of the tourism offerings
(Young, 2009, 332 cited in Sanz-Ibáñez et al., 2016, 2.) This I believed was one of the key factors that has
influenced the shift in focus for the tourism offerings. In addition, with the increase in tourism literature
on the varying typologies of the tourist and what drives them to visit a destination (McKercher et al., 2003;
Boyne et al., 2003; Hjalager, 2004; Vong, 2016; Özdemir et al., 2017). Along with the demand of the tourist,
for more immersive experiences, based on tourism research by host destination is also another reason
that have influence the need to diversify the product; especially as it pertains to that of gastronomy. It
was important to note that, the change in the demand for other types of tourism experiences have been
noticed by most of the participants. One of the more interesting points to note as emanating from the
study was the fact, even though most of the participants had some knowledge of gastronomy/food
tourism, only a select few were able to identify some or a range of activities that were associated with
gastronomy. If one were to use this data to generalize, Jamaicans’ knowledge on gastronomy, it would
show that only those individuals who either works within the sector or has some special interest in this
type of tourism would be the ones to list the associated actives of gastronomy.
Overall, gastronomy is seen as having a positive impact on Jamaica’s economy, with the offered
product being authentic both in taste and experience. The responses from the participants positioned the
Ministry of Industry, Commerce, Agriculture and Fisheries (MICAF) and by extension the farmers as the
sector to truly benefit from this experience. It is believed that gastronomy will create job opportunities
for the country, fostering sectoral strategic alignments to improve local food production and the services
offered. However, there was a strong call for capacity development on all levels with the aim of providing
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support (that is, Technical, financial, and institutional) to the industry along with the respective support
sectors. Interestingly, despite the general positive feeling about gastronomy’s impact on the nation, it
was the view of majority of the participants that the Jamaica Hotel and Tourist Association, Ministry of
Transport, and the Ministry of National Security would stand to benefit the least from gastronomy. It was
suggested that JHTA’s demise would be met with visitors engaging more unconventional stays
consequential to the rise in Airbnb offerings. The study suggested that hotels are not producing authentic
offerings as it relates to the food, the cultural showcasing of dace, and music. The review of a Visitor
Satisfaction Survey (2017), which was produced by the Jamaica Tourist Board, indicated that outside of
the fact that the hotels are extremely expensive; what they offered, especially those that offered an EP42
style instead of the American style are limited in their options. Also, the study revealed that
accommodation in most of the higher room capacity was either outdated for the price or needed a lot of
maintenance work. On the matter of security, in as much as there were no representatives from MNS, the
issue of the effective management of the perception of safe was top on the list. The visitor Satisfaction
Survey also indicated that tourists were scared to leave their hotels for which one person stated that they
feared for their lives one night when she heard shots firing. This response was crucial to the point of having
these cross-talks between, government bodies and the private sector so as to ensure that these concerns
are adequately addressed. Other remarks outside of the three main sectors that had one of the responses
form the survey suggested that the importers would lose consequent to the fact that they would not be
able to supply the market with the adequate supply to sustain the industry. However, based on
information from several secondary resources as well as what other participants suggested, the
researcher is of the view that it will not be the importers who would suffer, but rather the local farmers
and the local manufacturers as they are unable to meet the demand of the market both is quality and

42

Meaning European Plan, where only one meal is provided, the rest if any is at a cost.

135

quantity according to the standard of the much larger investors in the tourism industry. Despite this fact,
the researcher is hopeful that, the renewed focus of the Ministry to support the sector by bridging the
gap between local suppliers and hotels chains along with restaurants etc. will help in reducing the leakages
to imports from external suppliers and manufacturers.
On the other hand, Jamaica can benefit greatly from the tourism strategy employed by Travel
Manitoba know as plan 94/6 that focuses on allocating resources from the tax revenue back into
marketing and the like of the tourism industry. In adopting a similar strategy that fits the local context for
Jamaica, this plan 96/4 would be useful in executing capacity building activities such as training and
development which includes workshops, as well as improving on the marketing strategy where possible,
all with the view of improving the sector’s offerings. The success of gastronomy in Jamaica is heavily
dependent on an effective product development strategy that seeks to create a brand that will not only
transcend regional products but will be unique to the destination. Jamaica should also seek to be the
catalyst of growth for the Caribbean region, in promotion of regional tourism for the Caribbean that is
synonymous with the work done by Dougherty, P.H on wine regions such as wine of America, Bordeaux,
wine of west France, Chile and New Zealand as examples.
However, in building this product, the perception of authenticity will be critical in this product
development; being that the Caribbean community’s multicultural composition; though diverse, it has the
potential to build a unique product that is endemic to region due to the mixing and fusing of varying
cultural practices over time like that of the EU’s quality scheme projects (“Quality Schemes Explained”,
n.d.; European Commission, 2020, 8 May). Considering the fact that other countries have had a similar
experience and have been successful in their venture such as the pizza from Italy, and the wines from
Spain and Finland to name a few (Pérez Galvez et al., 2017); it is very important for Jamaica to develop
that brand that is known to be the product of Jamaica, which goes beyond its boundaries, and
commanding a certain level of authenticity and recognition that will be known as Jamaican.
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Notwithstanding the fact that regional tourism planning within the Caribbean, in building a
comprehensive product will be even more beneficial in supporting other small island states bringing
greater foreign investment to the region to aid in building the economy. In view of the fact that the
relationship with food in conjunction with heritage is very close in the association through ‘tangible and
intangible elements’ (Timothy & Ron, 2013 cited in, Pérez Galvez et al., 2017, 605); it is critical for those
marketing gastronomy on behalf of a region, country etc. as a cultural product; to understand the typology
of the tourist visiting one’s country in an effort in targeting the right sector and developing the right
packages for the ultimate experience in an effort to improve the competitiveness of the specific
geographic location. Finally, the expression of culture, through gastronomic experiences and exposures,
aid in legitimatizes the tourist product, impacting on the locals and the local economy through the influx
of foreign investment. It also builds a relationship between local and global actors through trans-local
networks that is geared toward local and regional development.

137

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147

5.9 APPENDIX
5.9.1 TRI-COUNCIL POLICY STATEMENT 2: CORE CERTIFICATE

148

5.9.2 BRANDON UNIVERSITY’S LETTER OF ADVICE OF ETHICS APPROVAL

149

5.9.3 BRANDON UNIVERSITY’S ETHICS CERTIFICATE FOR RESEARCH INVOLVING
HUMAN PARTICIPANTS

150

5.9.4 SAMPLE RECRUITMENT LETTER SUBMITTED TO RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

151

152

5.9.5 SAMPLE OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT USED FOR THE ONLINE SURVEY
ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF GASTRONOMY ON CROSS POLICY INITIATIVES
This research seeks to gain an understanding of the key factors that drive the need for diversification of the tourist
product in Jamaica from traditional tourist attraction (i.e., white sands and beaches to name a few) to the new
theme of food tourism known as gastronomy. It is hoped that the researcher will be in a position to understand the
level of impact that this initiative will have on cross-sector policies as it relates to the health, transportation, Local
government and agriculture sectors among others.

Kindly review all questions carefully before attempting to provide an answer. This interview consists of three (3)
sections that are broken down as follows: A) section 1 – biodata; b) section# 2 – Knowledge of gastronomy (food
tourism); C) Section 3 – Cross-Sector policy interaction and its impact on key sectors. It is important that you choose
your answers carefully due to the fact that your selection will determine the next question that is asked of you. This
interview may last between 45 to 60 minutes based on the options selected.
Section#1
General (will be completed by all candidates)
The information collected in this section will be used for statistical and analytical purposes only. All questions should
be attempted however, if you are not sure of a suitable response, please select the option “not sure” wherever it
provided.
1.

2.

3.

Kindly select the age range that you are a part of?
a.

20 TO 24

b.

25 TO 29

c.

30 TO 34

d.

35 TO 39

e.

40 TO 44

f.

45 TO 49

g.

50 and over

Would you be interested in being contacted after completing this study?
a.

Yes

b.

* No (participant will be sent to the first question of section 2)

Please select the preferred mode of contact.
a.

* Skype Interview (participant will be sent to question #5)

b.

Email

153

c.

* Phone interview (participant will be sent to question#6)

d.

Other (please specify)

4.

* Please provide an email address that you use frequently. (participant will be sent to question#7)

5.

* Kindly provide your skype ID for ease of reference. (participant will be sent to question#7)

6.

* Kindly provide a contact number that is easily accessible by you. (participant will be sent to question#7)

7.

Please indicate your available day(s) that may best to contact you. (You may select multiple options
however, once you have selected the option anytime, may be contacted at any time after receiving your
submission.)

8.

a.

Anytime

b.

Monday

c.

Tuesday

d.

Wednesday

e.

Thursday

f.

Friday

g.

Saturday

h.

Sunday

Multiple selection enabled

Please indicate a time that may be suitable to contact you. (You may select multiple options however, once
you have selected the option anytime, may be contacted at any time after receiving your submission.)
a.

Anytime

b.

Morning between 8:30 and 10:30

c.

Morning Between 10:30 and 11:30

d.

Afternoon between 1:00pm and 2:00pm

e.

Afternoon between 2:00pm and 3:00pm

f.

Other (please specify)

Multiple selection enabled

154

Section #2
The information collected in this section is geared toward understanding your knowledge of Gastronomy. The data
collected will be used in analysing the impact of the policy decision by the Ministry of Tourism to pursue
Gastronomy (food tourism) as a viable tourist strategy. Do you wish to proceed?

1.

a.

Yes

b.

* No (participant will be sent to the end of the survey)

Have you noticed any change(s) in the marketing strategy for tourism in Jamaica over the past five years?
(Such as increase advertisement and marketing on what Jamaica is offering globally; diversification in the
product being offered etc.)

2.

3.

a.

Yes

b.

No

c.

Not sure

Are you familiar with the term Gastronomy?
a.

Yes

b.

* No (participant will be sent to question # 5)

c.

* Not really (participant will be sent to question # 4)

Are you aware of the full range of gastronomy, in relation to the varying types of gastronomy? (i.e.,
Culinary tourism, live food preparation by a famous chef; observation of a production process etc.)

4.

a.

Yes

b.

* No (participant will be sent to question # 4)

Kindly list the aspects that you are familiar with (i.e., culinary arts, wine tourism etc.).
__________________________________________________________ [short answer required here]

5.

6.

7.

Are you familiar with “food tourism”?
a.

Yes

b.

No

Are you aware of the full range of “food tourism”?
a.

Yes

b.

* No (participant will be sent to question # 8)

Kindly list the aspects that you are familiar with. (e.g., culinary arts, wine tourism etc.)

__________________________________________________________[short answer required here]

155

8.

In short, gastronomy (food tourism) generally refers to the cultural diet of a people to include but not
limited to the originality of a dish and it being indigenous to a place, region, or country (Sormaz et al,
2007,726). Gastronomy also takes into consideration knowledge transfer ranging from best practices to
culinary training. With this in mind, on a scale of 1 – 5 (where 1 represents no progress at all and 5
representing significant progress), how do you see Jamaica progressing with this new focus on ‘food
tourism’ as one of the drivers for tourism?

Likert Scale that will be used
1

2

3

4

5

No progress at all

some progress

neither

Great progress

Significant progress

(attracting local

positive nor

(Attracting local

(Expanding brand Jamaica on the

patrons)

negative

and international

international scene

impact

tourist)

9.

Is it important for Jamaica to diversify its tourism product? (i.e., to go beyond the natural beach, the sun,
and the sands)
a.

Yes

b.

* No (participant will be sent to question # 11)

c.

* Not sure (participant will be sent to question # 11)

10. Kindly list not more than three (3) opportunities that can be tapped into?
__________________________________________________________ [short answer required here]
11. On a scale of 1 – 5, where 1 represents not authentic all and 5 being authentic in taste and experience.
How authentic will this experience be for the international tourist?

Likert Scale that will be used
1

2

3

4

5

Not authentic at all

Tailored for a

Somewhat

Authentic in taste

Authentic in taste

specific market

authentic

only

and experience

12. What kind of impact do you foresee gastronomy having on both the public and private sector ‘s operational
policies? (e.g., would this initiative impact positively or negatively on staffing policies, operational policies
etc.)
a.

Positive

b.

Negative

c.

Both

d.

* Not sure (participant will be sent to question # 18)

156

13. Briefly explain the reason for your answer.
___________________________________________________________ [short answer required here]
14. Of the following entities, which do you think will have a greater positive impact based on the initiative to
use gastronomy as a tourist product?
a.

Ministry of Agriculture

b.

Ministry of National Security

c.

Ministry of Transport

d.

Ministry of Health

e.

Ministry of local government (to include the Municipal Corporations)

f.

Hoteliers

g.

Tour companies (JATOO, JCAl, JUTA etc)

h.

* Not Sure (participant will be sent to question # 18)

i.

Other

15. In not more than two sentences, briefly explain the reason for your answer.
____________________________________________________ [short answer required here]
16. Of the following entities, which do you think will have a greater negative impact based on the initiative to
use gastronomy as a tourist product?
a.

Ministry of Agriculture

b.

Ministry of National Security

c.

Ministry of Transport

d.

Ministry of Health

e.

Ministry of local government (to include the Municipal Corporations)

f.

Hoteliers

g.

Tour companies (JATOO, JCAL, JUTA etc)

h.

* Not Sure (participant will be sent to question # 18)

17. In not more than two sentences, briefly explain the reason for your answer.
____________________________________________________ [short answer required here]
18. In 2017, Devon house was declared as Jamaica’s first gastronomic centre. Do you believe that this move
was a step in the right direction?
a.

Yes

b.

No

c.

Not sure

157

19. Do you believe that there are other establishments that can be recognized as gastronomic centres? (e.g.,
existing restaurants, public facilities that offer the opportunity to experience diverse food offered and or
other culinary experiences)
a.

Yes

b.

* No (participant will be sent to question # 21)

c.

* Not sure (participant will be sent to question # 21)

20. Can you list the establishment(s) that you believe could have been established as a gastronomic centre(s).
_______________________________________________________ [short answer required here]
21. Have you ever attended any ‘restaurant week’ events?
a.

Yes

b.

No

22. Would you consider restaurant week a viable event for promoting gastronomy (food tourism) to locals and
tourists alike?
a.

Yes

b.

No

c.

Not sure

23. Do you think that there are other events that can be considered as suitable gastronomic events? (e.g.,
Curry fest in Westmoreland, Denbigh agricultural show; and all farmers market).
a.

Yes

b.

* No (participant will be sent to Section 3, question # 1)

c.

* Not sure (participant will be sent to Section 3, question # 1)

24. Kindly identify these events for the purpose of the study.
________________________________________________ [short answer required here]
Section# 3
The information collected in this section is geared toward understanding your professional experiences, along with
the impact that gastronomy has on both the private and public sector. This is section is designed to capture specific
information to determine whether or not more can be done to improve cross-policy interaction. Do you wish to
proceed?
a.

Yes

b.

* No (participant will be sent to the end of the survey)

158

Organizational Overview (Will be completed by all candidates)
1.

2.

3.

4.

Please select the appropriate sector for which best describes your entity.
a.

Public

b.

* Private (participant will be sent to question # 4)

c.

Quasi

d.

NGO

e.

* Other (participant will be sent to question # 4)

Please indicate the level at which you serve.
a.

Central government

b.

Local government

c.

Other (please state) ___________

Select the option that best describes your job function?
a.

Senior Management/ Head of Organization

b.

Middle Management/ Head of Department

c.

Line Management/ Sectional or Unit Supervisor

d.

Technical Staff

e.

Administrative Staff

f.

Other (please state) ____________

How long have you been working in this sector?
a.

Less than or equal to 1 year

b.

Greater than 1 year but less than or equal to 5 years

c.

Greater than 5 years but less than or equal to 10 years

d.

over 10 years

159

5.

Kindly indicate the entity for which you are representing.
a.

Ministry of Tourism and Entertainment (go to colour coded
question #......)

b.

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Move to colour coded
question From the Ministry of Agriculture’s point of view)

c.

Ministry of Local Government and Community Development
(move to colour coded question#--)

d.

Ministry of Transport, Works & Housing (move to colour coded

Note: Each participant, based on
their selection will be fast
tracked to a certain set of
questions that were specifically
designed to capture the impact
on that sector.
Some questions overlap and will
be repeated in each section

question#--)
e.

Ministry of Health (move to colour coded question#--)

f.

Ministry of National Security (Move to colour coded question)

g.

Municipal Corporation (move to colour coded question#--)

h.

Jamaica Association of Transport Owners and Operators
JATOO (move to colour coded question#--)

i.

Jamaica Co-operative Automobile & Limousine Tours Ltd. JCAL (move to colour coded
question#--)

6.

a.

Jamaica Union of Travelers Association JUTA (move to colour coded question#--)

b.

Jamaica Hoteliers Association (move to colour coded question#--)

c.

Other (please state) (move to colour coded question#--)

------------------Questions for Ministry of Tourism
a.

When was the concept of gastronomy realized as a tourist initiative for Jamaica; and what was the
driving factor that inspired the policy decision?
________________________________ [Short answer required here]

160

b.

What aspect is the ministry concerned with?
i. Culinary education
ii. Farming technology
iii. Cuisine experiences to include observation of food production/preparation process.

c.

1.

I only

2.

II only

3.

III only

4.

I and II

5.

I and III

6.

II and III

7.

All of the above

8.

Other

Based on the selection above, how concerned is the Ministry of Tourism with the level of
authenticity in promoting Jamaican cuisine?
i. Extremely concerned.
ii. Very concerned.
iii. Somewhat concerned.
iv. Not so concerned.
v. Not at all concerned.

d.

With Devon’s house being established as a Gastronomic centre. What other locations,
establishment(s) etc. is the Ministry planning to establish as gastronomic centres? (Please be sure
to state the location of these facilities e.g., "Boston Jerk in long Bay, Portland or Gloria's in Port
Royal, Kingston")
_________________________________ [Short answer required here]

e.

What timeline does the Ministry have set out for the establishment of other gastronomic centres?
_________________________________ [Short answer required here]

f.

What criteria shall be met to be considered as a gastronomic centre?
_________________________________ [Short answer required here]

g.

What steps will small establishments need to take in order to meet the requirement of the
Ministry of Tourism? (Multiple option selection is enabled for this question)
i. Have an approved plan from the Local Authority
ii. Obtain a specific permit from the Ministry of Tourism
iii. Be certified by the Ministry of Health

Multiple selection enabled

iv. Receive team Jamaica certification from TPDCo.

161

v. Other _______________
h.

Do you foresee gastronomic experiences being a seasonal activity [e.g., mango fest, restaurant
week etc.]?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Other

i.

Has the Ministry of Tourism consulted with any of the undermentioned entities concerning the
new policy to include gastronomy as a tourist initiative prior to its rollout? (Multiple option
selection is enabled for this question)
i. Ministry of Health
ii. Ministry of Agriculture
iii. Ministry of National Security
iv. Ministry of Local Government
v. Local authorities
vi. JATOO, JUTA or JCAL
vii. Jamaica Hoteliers Association

j.

Is the Ministry of Tourism collaborating with the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries regarding
any programs for them to enhance their diversity [not just sale of goods, but also for knowledge
transfer]?
i. YES
ii. NO
iii. Other___________

k.

Does the Ministry foresee a positive impact on local economic development in the
undermentioned areas, namely:
i. Accommodation
ii. Transportation and infrastructure
iii. Employment
1.

I only

2.

II only

3.

III only

4.

I and II only

5.

I and III only

6.

II and III only

7.

All of the above

162

8.
l.

None at all

Does the ministry believe that some of the possible gastronomic experiences may be lost due to
highway development?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Maybe

m. Are there any plans by the Ministry to address this impact?
i. Yes
ii. No
n.

Is the Ministry focusing on?
i.

building a Jamaican product

ii. building a hub to experience a multicultural experience.
iii. other____________
o.

* How does the Ministry plan to involve other sectors that are impacted directly or indirectly such
as the Ministries of Health, Agriculture, National Security, Transportation and Local government?
(Participant will be sent to the end of the survey)
_______________________ [Short answer required here]

163

7.

------------------Questions for Ministry of Agriculture
a.

Did the Ministry of Tourism consult with the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries prior to
announcing the pursuit of gastronomy as a policy decision?

b.

a.

Yes

b.

No

What impact will gastronomy (food tourism) have on the operations of your departments and
agencies?

c.

a.

Positive

b.

Negative

c.

Both

Briefly explain the reason for your answer
_______________________ [Short answer required here]

d.

From the Ministry of Agriculture’s point of view, how does the strategy to use gastronomy (food
tourism) as a tourist lure impact the farming Sector?

e.

i.

Positively for local farmers

ii.

Neither positive nor negative

iii.

Negatively for local farmers

iv.

Other (please specify)

Briefly explain the reason for your answer
____________________________ [Short answer required here]

f.

Are there any policies in place to protect the industry from external activities that may affect the
industry’s ability to meet the demand of the market? (i.e., policies that will secure viable
agricultural land, improving investment opportunities, security for farmers and their clients etc.)

g.

i.

Yes

ii.

* No (participant will be sent to question # 7[h])

iii.

Other____

What are some of these policies and or guidelines that are used by the Ministry in protecting the
industry from external activities?
_________________________________ [Short answer required here]

h.

Do you foresee any changes in your policies, plans, operations that will be required to keep up
with the initiative by the Ministry of Tourism?

i.

i.

Yes

iv.

* No (participant will be sent to question # 7[J])

What areas will be impacted?

164

_______________ [Short answer required here]

j.

Do you think that there is adequate interaction with the Government Ministries and agencies as it
relates to cross-policy initiatives?

k.

i.

Yes

ii.

No

iii.

Other

The Minister of Agriculture in a news release made mention of a small percentage of local produce
used in the hotels across Jamaica as opposed to imported goods. What is being done to ensure
that this percentage improves?
____________________________________ [Short answer required here]

l.

Do you think that Jamaican farmers in their current state will be able to meet the demands of the
sector as it relates to Gastronomic development?
i.

Yes

ii.

* No (participant will be sent to question # 7[n])

iii.

Not sure

m. What is the Ministry prepared to do as a course of action to strengthen the farmer’s ability to
improve production?
_____________________________ [Short answer required here]
n.

What improvements are needed for greater collaboration to ensure that the Ministry of
Agriculture and other Government Agencies and private entities work to improve the current
situation for this initiative? (If there are none, please write n/a) (participant will be sent to the end
of the survey)
________________________________ [Short answer required here]

8.

------------------Questions for Ministry of Local Government and Community Development
a.

Did the Ministry of Tourism consult with the Ministry of Local Government and Community
Development prior to announcing the pursuit of gastronomy as a policy decision?
i. Yes
ii. No

b.

How will gastronomy (food tourism) impact the operations of your departments and agencies?
i. Positively
ii. Negatively

165

iii. Both
c.

Will there have to be a review of the permit and licenses procedures for Building applications?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Other _______-

d.

Do you foresee any impact on Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) policies for entities that will be
considered as a gastronomic centre?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Other_______

e.

With the current focus on the development application turnaround time to be reduced to a 90day period for processing. Do you think that the Municipal Corporations are in a position to meet
the existing demands with the possibility of an increase in varying application type and volume?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Other_______

f.

Are there any current policies that your ministry has in place that may require some changes to
facilitate this new push for gastronomy as a tourist lure?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Not sure

g.

Can you list the ones that you believe will have to be changed or amended?
__________________________[Short answer required here]

h.

Is the Ministry prepared to do anything to strengthen the ability the department and agencies
under its purview to accommodate this new initiative?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Other________

i.

What improvements are needed for greater collaboration to ensure that the Ministry of Local
Government and Community Development along with other Government Agencies and private
entities work to improve the current situation for this initiative? (if there are none, please write
n/a) (participant will be sent to the end of the survey)
_____________________________ [Short answer required here]

166

9.

------------------Questions for Ministry of Transport, Works & Housing
a.

Did the Ministry of Tourism consult with the Ministry of Transport, Works and Housing prior to
announcing the pursuit of gastronomy as a policy decision?
i. Yes
ii. No

b.

How will gastronomy (food tourism) impact the operations of your departments and agencies?
i. Positively
ii. Negatively
iii. Both

c.

Are there any current policies that your ministry has in place that may be required to be changed
to facilitate this new push for gastronomy as a tourist lure?
i. Yes
ii. * No (participant will be sent to question # 9[e])
iii. * Not sure (participant will be sent to question # 9[e])

d.

Can you list the ones that you believe will have to be changed or amended?
_______________ [Short answer required here]

e.

New development at times impacts negatively on existing business operations. With the current
focus on improving the country’s road network through highway development, does the ministry
believe that some of the possible gastronomic experiences may be lost due to highway
development? (e.g. Faith’s pen,)
i. Yes
ii. No

f.

With the possibility of increased in-island travelling by tourist, do you foresee that transport
operators will require a revision of the current route/destination assignment?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Not sure

g.

What improvements are needed for greater collaboration to ensure that the Ministry of
Transport, Works, and Housing along with other Government Agencies and private entities work
to improve the current situation for this initiative? (if there are none, please write n/a) (participant
will be sent to the end of the survey)
____________________________________ [Short answer required here]

167

10. -------- Questions for Ministry of Health
a.

Did the Ministry of Tourism consult with the Ministry of Health prior to announcing the pursuit of
gastronomy as a policy decision?
i. Yes
ii. No

b.

How will gastronomy (food tourism) impact the operations of your departments and agencies?
i. Positively
ii. Negatively
iii. Both

c.

How will the application procedures be impacted by this new drive for tourism improvement
especially as it relates to gastronomic centres and other informal and formal entities?
i. No impact at all
ii. Little to no impact on daily operations
iii. Increased demand for additional Officers
iv. Complete revision of operational protocol
v. Other___________

d.

With the current focus on the development application turnaround time to be reduced. Do you
think that the Ministry of Health is in a position to meet the existing demands with the possibility
that an increase in varying application type and volume?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Not really

e.

How will the Ministry and its departments and regional offices aid in regulating informal
operations that pop up overnight trying to capitalize on food tourism?
________________________________[Short answer required here]

f.

Are there any current policies that your ministry has in place that may be required to be changed
to facilitate this new push for gastronomy as a tourist lure?
i. Yes
ii. No (move to question # 10 [h])
iii. Not sure (move to question 10 [h])

g.

Can you list the ones that you believe will have to be changed or amended?
___________________ [Short answer required here]

h.

What is the Ministry prepared to do as a course of action to strengthen the ability your
departments and agencies to meet the demand of this growing sector?

168

_______________________ [Short answer required here]
i.

What improvements are needed for greater collaboration to ensure that the Ministry of Local
Government and Community Development along with other government agencies and private
entities work to improve the current situation for this initiative? (if there are none, please write
n/a) (participant will be sent to the end of the survey)
_________________ [Short answer required here]

11. ------Questions for Municipal Corporations
a.

Did the Ministry of Tourism consult with the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries prior to
announcing the pursuit of gastronomy as a policy decision?
i. Yes
ii. No

b.

Please select the Municipal Corporation that you are representing
i. St. Catherine
ii. Kingston and St. Andrew
iii. St. Thomas
iv. Portland
v. St. Mary
vi. St. Ann
vii. Trelawny
viii. St. James
ix. Hanover
x. Westmoreland
xi. St. Elizabeth
xii. Manchester
xiii. Clarendon

c.

At your Corporation, other from the Planning Department, is there a Commercial Services Unit or
a business development Unit?
i. Yes
ii. * No (participant will be sent to question # 11 [e])

d.

Kindly indicate the department or unit you are representing.
i. * Planning Department (participant will be sent to question # 11 [e])
ii. * Commercial services or Business Development Unit (participant will be sent to question
# 11 [f])

169

e.

* How will gastronomy (food tourism) impact the operations of the Planning Department?
(participant will be sent to question # 11 [g])
i. No impact at all
ii. Little to no impact on daily operations
iii. Increased demand for additional Officers
iv. Complete revision of operational protocol
v. Other___________

f.

* How will gastronomy (food tourism) impact the operations of the Commercial Services/ Business
services unit (if any)? (participant will be sent to question # 11 [g])
i. No impact at all
ii. Little to no impact on daily operations
iii. Increased demand for additional Officers
iv. Complete revision of operational protocol
v. Other___________

g.

With the current focus on the development application turnaround time to be reduced. Do you
think that the Municipal Corporation is in a position to meet the existing demands with the
possibility that an increase in varying application type and volume?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Not really

h.

How will the Municipal Corporation aid in regulating informal operations that pop up with this
new initiative?
________________________________ [Short answer required here]

i.

Are there any current policies that your Corporation has in place that may be require to be
changed to facilitate this new push for gastronomy as a tourist lure?
i. Yes
ii. * No (participant will be sent to question # 11 [k])
iii. * Not sure (participant will be sent to question # 11 [k])

j.

Can you list the ones that you believe will have to be changed or amended? (if not, please state
the change you believe is necessary)
______________________ [Short answer required here]

k.

Is the Municipal Corporation that you are a part of, in a position to strengthen your department /
Unit to meet the demand of this growing sector?
i. Yes

170

ii. No
iii. Other__________
l.

What improvements are needed for greater collaboration to ensure that the Ministry of Local
Government and Community Development along with other Government Agencies and private
entities work to improve the current situation for this initiative? (if there are none, please write
n/a) (participant will be sent to the end of the survey)
_________________[Short answer required here]

12. ………. Questions for Tour Operators
a.

Did the Ministry of Tourism Consult with your group prior to announcing the pursuit of
gastronomy as a policy decision?
i. Yes
ii. No

b.

How will gastronomy (food tourism) impact on the operations of your members and the general
tour operations? (i.e. will it improve revue, create jobs, affect costing etc.)
________________________________ [Short answer required here]

c.

With the possibility of increased in-island travelling by tourist, do you foresee that transport
operators will require a revision of route destination?
i. Yes
ii. * No (participant will be sent to question 12 [e])
iii. * Not sure (participant will be sent to question 12 [e])

d.

Do you foresee any changes in the license structure and requirements for your members?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Not Sure

e.

Do you foresee any increase in competing tour companies as a result of this new initiative?
i. Yes
ii. No

f.

New development at times impacts negatively on existing business operations. With the current
focus on improving the country’s road network through highway development, do you believe
that some of the possible gastronomic experiences may be lost due to highway development?
(e.g. Faith’s pen,)
i. Yes

171

ii. No

g.

Briefly explain the reason for your answer to the previous question.
_________________________________ [Short answer required here]

h.

What improvements are needed for greater collaboration to ensure that the Ministry of
Transport, Works and Housing along with other Government Agencies and private entities work to
improve the current situation for this initiative? (if there are none, please write n/a) (participant
will be sent to the end of the survey)
____________________________ [Short answer required here]

13. ………..Questions for Jamaica Hoteliers Association
a.

Did the Ministry of Tourism consult with the Jamaica Hoteliers Association prior to announcing the
pursuit of gastronomy as a policy decision?
i. Yes
ii. No

b.

Do you believe that gastronomy (food tourism) was inspired by the government of Jamaica or was
it a private sector initiative?
i. Government of Jamaica
ii. Private Sector
iii. Other___________

c.

Do you think that this initiative will have an impact on Jamaica’s economy?
i. Yes
ii. * No (participant will be sent to question # 13 [e])
iii. * Not sure (participant will be sent to question # 13 [e])

d.

Select the appropriate option that best describes the sector that gastronomy will greatly impact?
i. Informal economy (Positively)
ii. Informal economy (Negatively)
iii. Formal economy (Positively)
iv. Formal economy (Negatively)
v. Not sure

e.

With this new focus on food tourism, will there be a greater demand for the hiring of local culinary
students?
i. Yes
ii. No

172

iii. Other__________
f.

How will gastronomy (food tourism) impact on the operations of the hoteliers as well as other
smaller establishments? (Multiple option selection is enabled for this question)
i. It will improve revue
ii. create jobs
iii. reduce jobs
iv. Impact on room costing
v. Make hotels more marketable
vi. Make hotels less marketable
vii. Other_____________

g.

Will there be greater collaboration with local farmers and the hoteliers in improving the use of
local products in food preparation?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Not sure

h.

With the push to establish gastronomic centres, how does this impact on your ‘on-site’ activities?
Do you foresee:
i. A greater push for off-site activities from your visitors because of food tourism
ii. That more tourist will opt out of all-inclusive hotels for more B&B and timeshare like
opportunities as a result of gastronomy
iii. Both
iv. Other_____

i.

What will the Jamaica Hoteliers association do, in encouraging hotel chains across Jamaica to offer
more authentic gastronomic experiences ‘on-site’.
i. Promoting more Jamaica nights
ii. Increase live preparation of Jamaican dishes
iii. Other.

j.

What improvements are needed for greater collaboration to ensure that the Ministry of
Transport, Works and Housing along with other Government Agencies and private entities work to
improve the current situation for this initiative? (if there are none, please write n/a) (participant
will be sent to the end of the survey)
______________________________ [Short answer required here]

173

14. ………Questions for Ministry of National Security
a.

Did the Ministry of Tourism consult with the Ministry of National Security prior to announcing the
pursuit of gastronomy as a policy decision?
i. Yes
ii. No

b.

What role does the Ministry of National Security envision for itself in contributing to an experience
as it relates to gastronomy (food tourism)? (with emphasis on border security and community
safety and security)
_______________[Short answer required here]

c.

What would the MNS consider as being the greatest concern for Jamaica in light of this new push
for gastronomy? (e.g. food contamination upon importation, safety of patrons and visitors to the
island to name a few)
____________________ [Short answer required here]

d.

Being that tourist may now venture further away from hotels and locations that may be
considered to be ‘safer’. How do you foresee this impacting on securing those (both local and
overseas) who may go to unconventional establishment for the gastronomic experience?
i. No real Challenge
ii. Serious Challenge
iii. Other _________

e.

Do you think that the policies of the Ministry as it relates to public safety, are adequate to cover
all aspect of gastronomy that will impact of the Ministry’s operation?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Not sure

f.

Will the Ministry be focusing on establishing and or strengthening policies specifically aimed at
gastronomy?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Not Sure

g.

Will the Ministry of National Security through the security services require greater involvement in
the development process when gastronomic centres are being decided?
i. Yes
ii. No

174

What improvements are needed for greater collaboration to ensure that the Ministry of
Transport, Works and Housing along with other Government Agencies and private entities work to
improve the current situation for this initiative? (if there are none, please write n/a) (participant
will be sent to the end of the survey)
_______________________ [Short answer required here]

15. ………Questions for Other (Academia, Planner from the Planning Institute of Jamaica)
a.

Are you aware of the Ministry of Tourism Consulting with the public and or other entities prior to
announcing the pursuit of gastronomy as a policy decision?
i. Yes
ii. * No (participant will be sent to question # 15 [c])

b.

Can you state whom they consulted?
____________________ [Short answer required here]

c.

Do you believe that gastronomy (food tourism) was inspired by the government of Jamaica or was
it a private sector initiative?
i. The Government of Jamaica
ii. Private Sector
iii. both
iv. Not Sure

d.

Do you think that this initiative will have a positive impact on Jamaica’s economy?
i. Yes
ii. No (participant will be sent to question # 15 [f])
iii. Not sure (participant will be sent to question # 15 [f])

e.

At what level do you foresee a greater impact based on your previous response?
i. Informal economy
ii. Formal economy
iii. Not sure

f.

With this new focus on food tourism, will there be a greater demand for the hiring of local culinary
students?
i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Not Sure

g.

What does this mean for institutions such as CASE, HEART Trust NTA, UTECH and the like? Will this
renewed focus on food tourism improve the cohort for these institutions?

175

i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Not Sure
h.

Are you aware of any study or project that has similar academic questions as it relates to cross
policy interactions and interventions with respect to gastronomy?
i. Yes
ii. * No (participant will be sent to question # 15 [k])
iii. * Not sure (participant will be sent to question # 15 [k])

i.

Did the project identify any major impacts on the agriculture and transport sectors?
i. * Yes (participant will be sent to question # 15 [n])
ii. * No (participant will be sent to question # 15 [n])

j.

What were those impacts?
_________________________ [Short answer required here]

k.

New development at times impacts negatively on existing business operations. With the current
focus on improving the country’s road network through highway development, do you believe
that some of the possible gastronomic experiences may be lost due to highway development?
(e.g. Faith’s pen,)
i. Yes
ii. No

l.

Briefly explain the reason for your answer to the previous question.
_______________________ [Short answer required here]

m. In your opinion, what do you believe to be critical, as a policy decision for the government of
Jamaica in ensuring that gastronomy survives as a viable tourist initiative for Jamaica?
________________________ [Short answer required here]
n.

What improvements are needed for greater collaboration to ensure that the Ministry of
Transport, Works and Housing along with other Government Agencies and private entities work to
improve the current situation for this initiative. (if there are none, please write n/a) (participant
will be sent to the end of the survey)
_____________________ [Short answer required here]

176