ADVANCED PLACEMENT PROGRAMS AND THE TRANSITION FROM
SECONDARY TO POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Education
Brandon University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of Master of Education

by
Graham Avon
March 2012

Copyright © Graham Avon, 2012. All rights reserved.

ADVANCED PLACEMENT PROGRAMS AND THE TRANSITION FROM
SECONDARY TO POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION

Abstract
The transition from secondary education to post-secondary education is problematic for
many students. Attrition rates at post-secondary institutions, with the attendant loss of human
capital, continue to be a source of concern. This case study concerned the transition of students
from secondary education to post-secondary education and was conducted during 2010 and 2011
in southwestern Manitoba. In particular, this transition was examined from the perspective of
current university students who had taken Advanced Placement courses in high school.
Findings from the study shed light on aspects of the educational landscape that were
influential to the participants during this period in their lives. In the process the findings reveal
potential reasons for the high levels of attrition currently experienced. The findings suggest that
the overwhelming majority of the participants experienced a successful transition to university.
The participants felt that this was in large part due to the content of their AP courses, and also
due to being exposed to challenges that were similar in nature to those they could expect at
university. The dynamics of the learning environment at both levels of education were found to
be instrumental in the development of the participants, both in a positive and a negative
direction. In general the findings suggest that the pedagogical philosophies of the two levels of
education are not consistent and the degree of articulation between the two levels of education is
not sufficient to ensure a smooth transition. Recommendations for improving the articulation
between the two levels of education are included. Changes on both sides of the transition appear
to be necessary in order to reduce the difficulties that are currently experienced by students.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The development and completion of this thesis was not possible without the support of
numerous people. In particular, I wish to thank Prof. Cam Symons, for acting as my advisor,
patiently editing my work, and occasionally nudging me in the right direction. I would also like
to thank Profs. Arnold Novak and Karen Rempel for their continued assistance along the way.
Prof. Dawn Wallin inspired me in the first place to carry out this project and for that I am
grateful.
The thesis attempted to give the students a voice and I would like to thank them for
offering their time and support and for adding fuel to the fire. I hope that my words have treated
them well.
Finally, I would.like to say thanks to my family here and in England. Ultimately they are
the reason why this all happened in the first place!

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... iii
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction ............................................................................................... 1
Background and Context.......................................................................................................... 2
Problem Statement ................................................................................................................... 5
Statement of Purpose and Research Questions ........................................................................ 6
Research Approach .................................................................................................................. 7
Assumptions............................................................................................................................. 8
The Researcher......................................................................................................................... 8
Rationale and Significance ...................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER TWO: Conceptualization ..................................................................................... 10
Literature Review..................................................................................................................... 10
Post-secondary education. ................................................................................................... 10
Advanced Placement courses. ............................................................................................. 13
Models of human development. .......................................................................................... 18
Current brain research ................................................................................................... 26
Conceptual Summary ............................................................................................................... 29
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................ 31
CHAPTER THREE: Methodology ......................................................................................... 33
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 33
Rationale for Research Approach ............................................................................................ 34
The Research Sample ............................................................................................................... 36

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Summary of Information Needed. ........................................................................................... 37
Overview of Research Design ................................................................................................. 37
Literature Review.................................................................................................................... . 39
Data Collection Methods ......................................................................................................... 39
Theoretical underpinnings ................................................................................................... 39
Phase I: Pilot project. .......................................................................................................... 40
Phase II: Interviews. ............................................................................................................ 41
Interview schedule of questions and pilot interview ...................................................... 41
Interview process ............................................................................................................ 42
Methods for Data Analysis and Synthesis ............................................................................... 42
Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................................. 44
Enhancing Quality and Credibility .......................................................................................... 45
Credibility ........................................................................................................................... 48
Dependability ...................................................................................................................... 50
Confirmability ..................................................................................................................... 51
Transferability ..................................................................................................................... 51
Potential Limitations and Strengths of the Study .................................................................... 52
Chapter Summary............ ........................................................................................................ 55
CHAPTER FOUR: Findings .................................................................................................. 56
The Transition to Post-Secondary Education .......................................................................... 57
Introduction. ........................................................................................................................ 57
Uncertainty about university ............................................................................................... 59
Familiarity with course material ......................................................................................... 61

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Study habits. ........................................................................................................................ 64
Writing skills ................................................................................................................... 66
Test taking skills ............................................................................................................. 66
Lab skills......................................................................................................................... 66
Self-efficacy and resilience from past experience............................................................... 67
The transition of others. ...................................................................................................... 70
The Decision to Enrol in AP Courses ...................................................................................... 75
Introduction. ........................................................................................................................ 75
Sources of information in the decision process................................................................... 75
School as an information source .................................................................................... 75
Family as an information source.................................................................................... 76
Peers as an information source. ..................................................................................... 77
Self-efficacy and critical incidents as information sources ............................................ 77
Challenge as a deciding factor. ........................................................................................... 77
Challenge as preparation for university......................................................................... 79
Lack of challenge as a deciding factor ........................................................................... 80
Classroom dynamics as a deciding factor ........................................................................... 80
Motivation away from frustration and feelings of discomfort ........................................ 80
Motivation towards like-minded individuals who value learning .................................. 81
Important Things Learned from the AP Experience ................................................................ 82
Introduction. ........................................................................................................................ 82
Handling the work load ....................................................................................................... 82
Recalibration of abilities ..................................................................................................... 84

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Developing self-efficacy ..................................................................................................... 85
The Logistics of Taking AP ..................................................................................................... 87
The transition from regular stream programming to AP ..................................................... 87
Programming the courses. ................................................................................................... 88
Low marks. .......................................................................................................................... 89
Social emotional concerns................................................................................................... 90
The Importance of Time Constructs in Motivation ................................................................. 91
Self-efficacy and Resilience .................................................................................................... 93
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 93
Resilience ............................................................................................................................ 93
Self-efficacy ........................................................................................................................ 95
Self-efficacy by mastering skills ..................................................................................... 95
Self-efficacy by proxy ..................................................................................................... 97
The Learning Environment ...................................................................................................... 99
Motivational aspects of belonging to a community of learners .......................................... 99
A learning community: familiarity versus anonymity ........................................................ 101
Congruence in courses ........................................................................................................ 105
Congruence between coursework and assessment ......................................................... 106
Congruence between coursework and anticipated future studies .................................. 109
Role of the Instructor .......................................................................................................... 110
Teacher role.................................................................................................................... 110
Professor role ................................................................................................................. 111
Messages .................................................................................................................... 111

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Lack of care ............................................................................................................... 112
Care ........................................................................................................................... 112
Teaching background ................................................................................................ 113
CHAPTER FIVE: Analysis, Interpretation, and Synthesis of Findings ................................. 115
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 115
Transitions................................................................................................................................ 118
Choices and Challenges ........................................................................................................... 134
Supports and Barriers ............................................................................................................... 137
Revisiting Assumptions from Chapter One ............................................................................. 149
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 151
CHAPTER SIX: Conclusions ................................................................................................. 154
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 154
Making Successful Transitions to Post-Secondary Education................................................. 154
The Development of Self-Efficacy and Resilience .................................................................. 155
The Critical Nature of the Learning Environment in the Transitional Process ....................... 156
Recommendations .................................................................................................................... 158
Recommendations for secondary and post-secondary institutions ..................................... 158
Recommendations for further research ............................................................................... 160
Final comments ........................................................................................................................ 161
References... ............................................................................................................................. 163
Appendix A: Letter of Invitation to Participate ....................................................................... 167
Appendix B: Letter of Consent ................................................................................................ 169
Appendix C: Interview Protocol .............................................................................................. 173

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Introduction
This case study explores with a sample of current university students their perceptions of
their journey through secondary and on into post-secondary education. These students had all
taken Advanced Placement (AP) courses at high school. It was anticipated that the knowledge
generated from this inquiry would provide valuable information in two main areas: feedback on
AP courses and their impact on this transition, and exploration of the variables associated with
learning environments that play a role in this transition. Firstly, with regard to AP courses in
general, there is a paucity of studies of a qualitative nature and so the dimensions of the impact
of AP courses have largely been unexplored. In the local context to this point, there has been
some anecdotal evidence to suggest that graduates from the AP courses have found their
experiences to be helpful, but no formal study has been conducted. Secondly, there is a concern
surrounding the transition from secondary to post-secondary education. Current rates of attrition
at post-secondary institutions would suggest that the degree of articulation between secondary
and post-secondary education may need to be examined.
It was felt that feedback from the participants would be valuable to the high school from
which the students had graduated, as well as to other high schools considering implementing AP
programs. Secondly it was felt that the perceptions of the participants could provide valuable
feedback for educational administrations on either side of the transition and could be used to
inform current and future practices. Through rich description of this transition it was hoped that
the study could stimulate discussion concerning changes that could be made to address the issue
of attrition at universities, as well as provide direction for further avenues of useful research. To
this end, the research employed a qualitative case study methodology, which involved a

1

purposefully selected group of twelve current university students. Each of the participants had
taken AP courses at high school as well as regular stream courses.
This chapter begins by providing an overview of the context and background in which the
study is situated. Following this orientation is the problem statement, the statement of purpose,
and accompanying research questions. Also included in this chapter is discussion around the
research approach, researcher’s assumptions, and researcher’s perspectives. The chapter
concludes with a discussion of the proposed rationale and significance of this research study.
Background and Context
Evidence suggests that the transition from high school to university is not necessarily a
smooth process for a lot of students. In the United States for example, approximately 35% of the
students who enter post-secondary education leave without graduating (U.S. Department of
Education, 2010, p. 5) and nearly 30% leave before their second year (U.S. Department of
Education, 1998, p. iii). A similar pattern is evident in Canada, where 21% of students leave
post-secondary institutions without graduating (Statistics Canada, 2008). Statistics from the
University of Manitoba suggest that approximately one third of new students will experience
academic difficulty in their first year, only 23% of students with 90%+ high school averages
maintain their GPA in their first year, and from 16 to 17% of the “A” students (80%+) will be atrisk by the end of Year 1 (Blais, 2009). Overall the pattern seems to indicate that this is a
difficult transition period.
By no means is this a North American phenomenon and neither is it recent in its origin.
The global nature of the problem is illustrated by statistics from the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD), which suggest that the average incompletion rate for 19
OECD countries throughout the world is 31% (OECD, 2008). That this phenomenon is not

2

recent is illustrated in the work of Tinto, who is regarded as the leading researcher in the field of
post-secondary education. Almost twenty years ago he noted that more than a quarter of students
entering two year colleges and more than a quarter of students entering four year colleges in the
United States left at the end of their first year (as cited in Braxton, Milem, & Shaw-Sullivan,
2000, p. 569).
The extent and persistence of this problem is cause for concern as there are recognised
benefits of successful completion of post-secondary education for both the individual and for
society (Shaienks, Gluszynski, & Bayard, 2008). Incompletion of post-secondary education may
occur for a number of reasons and may not necessarily be an indicator of failure from the
perspective of the individual student. These high dropout rates, however, should not be ignored
in an age where educational levels are important to the prosperity of the country and the quality
of life enjoyed by its citizens.
It is important that those who choose to engage in post-secondary education are
successful since dropping out can have costs to both the individual and society. It is costly to the
individual in a number of ways. In the first place, an unsuccessful journey into post-secondary
education will result in a financial cost through lost tuition and other expenses. Secondly, the
costs may also be felt as a result of reduced grades, which can prevent individuals from
following their chosen career paths. This can also lead to a third or opportunity cost as a result
of lost earnings. Finally, since the Government of Canada contributes significantly to support
post-secondary education (28 billion dollars in 2005), dropping out and failing to graduate can be
considered a loss of investment to the Canadian society as a whole.
Evidence suggests that the attrition at post-secondary institutions is not restricted to
students with poorer high school graduation marks. Perhaps surprisingly, it is also attributable to

3

students with higher grades as well. Perry, Hladkyj, Pekrun, and Pelletier (2001, p. 587) refer to
the paradox of failure when talking about the unexpected failure of bright high school students
once they reach college. According to the Ottawa Citizen (2008), nearly a quarter of high school
graduates with “A” averages are at risk of leaving university after the first year. This number
doubles to more than half for students with poorer high school marks. These numbers suggest
that there is perhaps a gap between the skills of some high school graduates and the general skill
requirements of university. This gap is a contributing factor to the stresses that students
experience when they confront the reality of university. Unfortunately the gap proves to be too
large for some and they may have to drop courses and change programs. The end result is that
their career plans may be affected. Addressing the problem of successful transitions to postsecondary education takes on greater significance in light of the fact that post-secondary
enrolment of Canadian youth continues to increase from 62% of the population in 1999 to 76%
in 2003 (Shaienks, Eisl-Culkin, & Bussière, 2006).
Academic preparation may not be the only issue. Many students used to enter university
close to the age of 20 but now that age is closer to 17. For example, Ontario no longer has Grade
13 at the high school level. Students of a younger age may not be emotionally prepared for the
stresses that they will encounter at university. The transition from the more structured
environment of high school to the autonomy of university leads to complications for some
students. In high school, course requirements were largely laid out, whereas at university there is
an uncertainty for many about what courses to take and what path to follow (Blais, 2009).
Evidence suggests that marks often drop, which can lead to insecurities about ability. Other
students have moved away from home to study and struggle with homesickness, loneliness, and

4

separation from cultural structures that are important in their everyday life. Add to this the
personal stresses of growing into adulthood and it can become a minefield for some.
Within this context Advanced Placement courses have seen a rise in popularity in recent
years. In the local context, at the same time that there were three streams of mathematics courses
being offered in Grade 9 and Grade 10 at high school there was only one stream of science. This
was felt to be contradiction and faculty were concerned about addressing the needs of the
students who appeared to be able to accelerate their progress in mathematics, only to have it
somewhat stalled in science. As a result of this discussion, the high school in the study
introduced a selection of AP courses in 2005. Currently, students at that high school may select
from the following courses: Biology, Calculus, Chemistry, English, History, and Physics. In the
usual progression from high school to university the first graduates of this program could now be
placed in their fourth or fifth year of post-secondary education.
Problem Statement
Research suggests that the transition from secondary to post-secondary education is
difficult for many students. There are significant numbers of student who drop out, change
majors, or don’t complete the journey. These events occur despite evidence to suggest that the
students were prepared for university education according to standards set for secondary
education, including Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores and acceptable grades from
provincial high schools. At this point there is evidence to suggest that AP courses are of benefit
in this transition. What appears to be missing in the research at this time is a detailed analysis of
the dynamics of the learning landscapes involved in this transition.

5

Statement of Purpose and Research Questions
The purpose of this case study was to explore the transition from secondary to postsecondary education. Specifically, the journey was considered from the perspective of students
who had taken Advanced Placement courses at high school and who had then gone on to
university. The study attempted to look through the eyes of these students at factors that may
have been instrumental to them in their transitional process. Experiences at high school and
university were considered both from the perspective of changes in cognitive demand and also
from the perspective of the social emotional development of the students. These two
components of educational landscapes are recognised to be critical but they are often not
recognised explicitly as part of the established curriculum (Clifton et al., 2004, p. 802). By
illuminating this transition, it is hoped to shed some light on the possible causes for the
difficulties currently experienced. In doing so, it is felt that the information could be used to
address the needs of students involved in this transitional process.
The main research question used to shed light on this transitional process was, “What are
the effects of participation in Advanced Placement courses taken during high school upon the
subsequent experiences of students in first year university?" To explore this idea in detail, the
following additional research questions were addressed.
1. Do the participants perceive benefits from having taken Advanced Placement courses,
and if so, what benefits do they perceive?
2. On completion of their first year of university, how do the participants perceive that they
had been prepared for the challenge of university?
3. What were the perceptions of the participants regarding the challenges involved in taking
Advanced Placement courses?

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4. What factors do the participants consider to have been important in their choice to take
Advanced Placement courses?
5. When considering the journey through high school and on into university, what factors
were considered to facilitate the process and what factors were considered to hinder the
process?
Research Approach
With the approval of Brandon University Ethics Review Board, the researcher studied the
experiences and perceptions of 15 university students, who had taken Advanced Placement
courses while at high school. This investigation represented a case study using qualitative
methods. In-depth interviews were the primary method of data collection. The interview
process began with the researcher conducting three pilot interviews, which were used to shape
the subsequent interviews. The information subsequently obtained through twelve individual
interviews formed the basis for the overall findings of this study. Each interviewee was
indentified with a pseudonym and all interviews were tape recorded and transcribed verbatim.
Although the nature of this study prevented the researcher from achieving triangulation of
data, the research was supported by a comprehensive review of the relevant literature and a pilot
study, both of which helped to shape and refine the method of data collection. The establishment
and refinement of coding categories was an integral part of the study. This process involved
numerous iterations which were shaped by, and in turn shaped, the developing conceptual
framework of the study. In addition, various strategies were employed, including the search for
discrepant evidence, checks of consistency in the coding process, and peer review at different
stages as the study progressed. During the search for discrepant evidence, data saturation
became apparent, which led to the particular sample size.

7

Assumptions
Based on the researcher’s experience and background as an Advanced Placement teacher
at high school, three primary assumptions were made regarding this study. First, regular high
school curriculum coursework may not adequately prepare high school students for university.
This assumption is supported by the significant rates of attrition that are currently experienced.
Second, lack of rigor in high school programs may contribute to unreasonable optimism about
academic performance in graduating students, which leads to difficulties at university. Again
this is supported by research that illustrates that student attrition is not just a phenomenon
associated with lower marks, but affects all levels of ability. Third, students who are successful
in AP courses at high school should experience a more successful transition to university. This
assumption is not based purely on the abilities of the students, but is also based on the fact that
AP courses are designed to resemble a first year university course. In the design of these
courses, extended course content is provided beyond that of normal provincial curriculum. As
well, there are significant academic challenges inherent in the courses which may be important in
nurturing a more realistic appraisal of academic ability.
The Researcher
At the time of conducting this study, the researcher was a high school teacher of an
Advanced Placement program. Prior to this he had been one of the team of administrators and
teachers who had implemented a selection of AP.courses in a high school in southwestern
Manitoba. As a high school teacher with thirty years of experience in various settings, the
researcher brings to the study extensive practical experience and observation of the events
leading up to the graduation from high school. Through contact maintained with many former
pupils, he has also built an extensive knowledge of post-secondary experiences.

8

The researcher acknowledges that the same experiences that are so valuable in providing
insight could also serve as a liability, biasing judgment regarding research design and the
interpretation of findings. In addition to his assumptions and theoretical orientation at the outset
of the study the researcher remained committed to engage in ongoing critical self reflection by
way of journaling and dialogue with professional colleagues and advisors. Moreover, to address
the issue of subjectivity and strengthen the credibility of the research, various safeguards were
taken such as independent checks with professional colleagues when coding transcripts and also
during the interpretation and analysis phase of the research.
Rationale and Significance
The rationale for this study emanates from the desire to uncover ways to help more
students make a successful transition to university. Increased understanding of the journey from
high school to university may not only reduce the number of students who experience difficulty,
but might also increase the potential for them to successfully follow their planned career path.
Knowledge of this transitional process could be used by stakeholders to inform programs both at
high school and university. Closing the gap between the skill level of graduating high school
students and the skills required for university, along with modification of the first year university
experience, may help to reduce the serious loss of human capital currently experienced.

9

Conceptualization
The purpose of this case research study was to explore the role of Advanced Placement
courses in the transition from high school to university. Specifically, the role was considered
from the perspective of students who had taken Advanced Placement courses at high school and
who had then gone on to university. The study attempted to look through the eyes of these
students at factors that may have been instrumental to them in their transitional process. As part
of the study, a review of the extant literature was conducted. Three main areas of research were
considered: (a) models of post-secondary education, (b) Advanced Placement courses, and (c)
models of human development. Post-secondary education research was examined in order to
illustrate the multivariate nature of these environments. Interactions between the students and
the variables in these environments lead to behaviours that can have consequences in the
development of the students. In this context, variables associated with student attrition and
persistence were examined. A review of AP courses provided an understanding of where these
courses fit in to the current landscape of high school education. Finally, models of human
development were considered, as they provided a framework to consider the many factors
involved in the period of transition from high school to university.
Literature Review
Post-secondary education. According to Tinto (2006), “...student retention is one of the
most widely studied areas in higher education” (p. 1). The success of students at post-secondary
institutions is not only of interest to the students, but also has major implications for the
institutions themselves. Ultimately successful students enhance the reputation of the institutions
and help ensure that the institutions generate consistent revenue. As well as fiscal stability,
institutions also have an ethical responsibility to serve their population and ensure that their

10

students have the structures and supports that they need to succeed. The picture is not simple,
however, and involves the interactions between numerous variables.
Of all the theories that have been proposed to explain student attrition at post-secondary
institutions, Tinto’s “Student Integration Theory” enjoys near paradigmatic status (Braxton,
Sullivan, & Johnson, 1997). Tinto (1975) adopted an ecological approach to the phenomenon of
student attrition from post-secondary institutions. His primary thesis was based on Durkheim’s
theory of suicide. Durkheim (1979) argued that individuals are more likely to commit suicide
when they are insufficiently integrated into society. Tinto (1975) proposed that since postsecondary institutions were social systems with their own sets of values and social structures,
dropping out of them resembled in nature the act of suicide or dropping out of a wider society.
In his theory, student persistence is seen as an outcome of the connection between the student
and his or her academic environment. This connection develops as a result of the interactions
that occur between the student, his/her peers, and the faculty. Student entry or background
characteristics are seen as important predictors. Tinto (1993) suggested that “improved pre-entry
information aimed at the needs of future students can be an effective tool in reducing, over the
long run, student departure from institutions of higher education” (p. 156). These pre entry
characteristics include family background characteristics (e.g. socio economic status, parental
educational level) individual attributes (e.g. academic ability, race, and gender) and previous
academic achievement.
Critics of Tinto’s theory argue that it doesn’t recognise cultural variables, which makes it
problematic when applied to minority students. Tinto asserted that students needed to break
away from past associations and traditions in order to become integrated and assimilated into
their new academic and social environment. Tierney (1992) argued that this was inappropriate

11

when applied to minority cultures, because it encouraged their separation from cultural traditions
and supportive relationships. He suggested that post-secondary frameworks needed to be
overhauled in order to “...move away from models of social integration and assimilation and
toward a framework of emancipation and empowerment” (p. 616). Guiffrida (2006) echoed this
sentiment when he stated that, “...minority students may have a different cultural background to
that of the largely Eurocentric frameworks upon which the norms and values of predominantly
white institutions are based” (p. 451). He proposed that cultural norms and motivational
orientation needed to be integrated into Tinto’s model in order to make it appropriate for cultural
minorities.
Bean (1980) also used the basic premise of connection between the student and the
institution in his “Student Attrition Model”. In this model the attitudes of the student toward the
institution are seen as important predictors for his/her persistence in his/her post-secondary
studies. As with Tinto’s model, these attitudes are the result of the student’s social and academic
experiences with the institution. “Social Cognitive Career Theory” (Lent, Brown, & Hackett,
1994) suggests that, in addition to academic ability and past performance, persistence is
influenced by a student’s confidence in his or her academic ability (self-efficacy), the anticipated
consequences of persisting (outcome expectations), and the determination to persist
(performance goals). More recently Clifton, Perry, Adams-Stubbs, and Roberts (2004) examined
two major aspects of the pedagogical environment experienced by students in a post-secondary
environment. Cognitive demands of the institution and the social support provided by both the
professors and other students were considered in the study. The study recommends that students
be supported by the development of co-operative learning groups and also by helping professors
to become more supportive and student-centred.

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A more recent assertion by Tinto (1997) is that if social and academic integration is to
occur at all in post-secondary institutions it must happen in the classroom. Surprisingly little
research has been carried out with regard to this aspect of his model. Classrooms are seen as
microcosms of the broader academic and social landscape of the institution. Interactions in the
classroom become the gateway for subsequent student involvement in the larger social and
academic communities of the institution as a whole. Engagement in the classroom is seen as
critical, particularly for new students, and for those who are removed from their support
structures.
The current study provides further input into Tinto’s model since it traces the path of
students as they transition from high school to university. Pre-university characteristics of
students who have taken AP courses are considered and can be compared to those found to be
important predictors by Tinto. Interactions between the students and the institution are
considered, as is the importance of the role of the classroom in the transitional process. As noted
by Tinto (1997), “at its core, college is an educational experience and that conversations about
persistence that ignore important questions of educational practice are conversations that are at
best shallow” (p. 620).
Advanced Placement courses. The Advanced Placement (AP) program in which
students in this study were engaged has been in existence since 1955 and is an instrument of the
College Board. The College Board was founded in 1900 as a small non–profit association of
elite colleges whose focus was the successful transition of students from high school to postsecondary education (Lacey, 2010). It was responsible for the creation and administration of the
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) in the 1920’s and more recently in the 1950’s assumed
responsibility for administering (AP) courses and exams. At the time that it assumed

13

responsibility for the AP program, the political situation in the world gave rise to a general
concern over the preparation of students for post-secondary education (Fund for the
Advancement of Education [FAE], 1957; General Education in School and College [GESC],
1957). The FAE were concerned about the loss of a fundament liberal arts education to the
cafeteria style curriculum that was being adopted in high schools. Meanwhile the GESC saw as
a real problem the “welding [of] the last two years in high school with the first two years in
college” (as cited in Ballard, 1953, p. 498).
The AP program provides the opportunity for high school students to take college level
courses (College Board, 2010a). All three universities in Manitoba encourage students who have
taken AP courses to apply to their institutions. These students may be given consideration for
the marks they have achieved. For example, the University of Manitoba states that students may
be given credit for AP courses in which they score a 4 or higher on a five point scale, up to a
maximum of eighteen credit hours of university credits (College Board, 2010b).
There is an ongoing discussion concerning AP courses with strong views held by both
supporters and detractors. It is felt that there is a shortage of evidence about the efficacy, cost,
and value of the programs (Sadler 2010a, p. 6) and consequently there is a lack of consensus
over the efficacy of the courses and the program (National Research Council [NRC], 2002).
Attempts to determine causal effects associated with AP courses prove to be difficult. One of the
main reasons cited for this is that the courses act as a filter. The courses tend to attract
motivated, high achieving students, who may succeed at the next stage in their education whether
or not they have taken AP courses (Sadler 2010a, p. 7; Tai, Liu, Almarode, & Fan, 2010). As a
result, it is difficult to isolate the determinants of their later success (Sadler 2010b).

14

Success could be as a result of taking an AP course or of particular student characteristics
(Dougherty, Mellor, & Sterling, 2006), or it could be as a result of academic preparation in other
areas (Sadler & Tai, 2007). The study “Factors Influencing College Science Success” [FICSS]
conducted by Sadler and Tai (ibid) points to the importance of taking and passing the AP exam.
The findings from their study suggest that students who had passed the AP exam with a score of
three, four, or five, did better, on average, in introductory college courses than did their
counterparts who had either failed the AP exam with a score of one or two or had chosen not to
take the AP exam. These students also did better in all three subjects than students who had
taken no high school course in the subject or only a regular course. Only in biology did they
outperform students who had taken an honours course in the same subject. In physics and
chemistry, the honours students outperformed at a comparable level with AP passers. This was a
large national study involving students from fifty five randomly chosen colleges and universities,
from small liberal arts colleges to large universities. Sadler and Tai (2007).recognise, however,
that their study does not allow for causal connections between variables and outputs (p. 132).
This limitation was recognised by Dougherty, Mellor, and Jian (2006) when they stated:
Much of those [AP] students’ later success in college may be due not to the AP classes
themselves, but to the personal characteristics that led them to participate in the classes in
the first place – better academic preparation, stronger motivation, better family
advantages, and so on (p. 3).
Adelman (2006) found that the strongest predictor for completing a bachelor’s degree
was the intensity and quality of the student’s high school curriculum, regardless of whether they
had taken AP courses. In this regard, students involved in the FICSS study (Sadler & Sonnert,
2010) reported that the largest difference between AP courses and other courses was that they

15

worked much harder in AP courses. The greater demands were felt in preparation for the exam,
writing lab reports, studying, and reading the textbook (p. 59).
Critics of AP courses point to the fact that the courses can lead to a reliance on rote
memorization of facts with minimal emphasis on problem solving and discussion (NRC, 2002).
A related criticism is that by teaching to the test, the experience fails to give depth and breadth of
understanding (Berger, 2006; Katz, 2006). Support for this argument is suggested in a recent
study conducted by the College Board, (Paek, Braun, Trapani, Ponte, & Powers, 2007). Three
quarters of the teachers in the study felt a critical need to understand how to cover the course
content in the time available and what content could be dropped or modified. The pressure to
cover the required material in a given time is evident throughout the study as teachers appear to
prefer strategies that helped them cover the material in the most efficient way (Paek, Braun,
Ponte, Trapani, & Powers, 2010). Efficiency may not lead to activities that develop the depth
and breadth of understanding that is felt by some critics to be lacking.
In response to the recommendations made by the National Research Council (2002) the
College Board began a review of all their science courses. The intent was twofold: to respond to
the concern over the depth of understanding and to strengthen the argument for the validity and
reliability of the AP exam (Ewing, Huff, & Kaliski, 2010). To ensure consistency in course
delivery, the College Board instituted course audits in 2007. These were required in order for a
school to apply an “AP” designation to a course on the transcript of a student. The audit
consisted of a detailed course description showing course content, materials used, and activities
embedded in the course. In addition, the College Board began to redesign all four science
courses built around a consensus of educators of what concepts, and practices should be included
in a rigorous entry-level science course.

16

One of the participants in the current study stated that “there is a knowledge part and a
people part” to education. Such a comment acknowledges the dichotomy between the cognitive
and the affective domains that exist in educational discourse. Much of the research to date
concerning AP programming deals with the cognitive domain and consequently looks at
performance based criteria such as course retention rates and performance in post-secondary
institutions (Sadler & Sonnert, 2010). In a recent study of AP teacher practices, the qualities
used to measure teacher effectiveness were instructional and assessment practices, content
coverage, and test preparation practices (Paek, Braun, Ponte, Trapani, & Powers, 2010). All of
these characteristics appear to concern the cognitive domain or knowledge part of the equation.
According to Olson (2003), it is difficult to pinpoint the specific characteristics of pedagogy that
can be linked to high student achievement. What seems to be lacking in the research dialogue is
consideration of the affective domain or the people part of education. Little attention is given to
the role of the interaction between the instructor and the students. Motivation, connection, and
integration of the students into the learning community are considered critical in Tinto’s model
and recent research (Tinto, 1975; Tinto, 1997). Clifton, Perry, Adams Stubbs, and Roberts
(2004, p. 803) consider the affective domain to be a critical component of the educational
process. This study explores this critical component, thereby adding to the dialogue.
The search of the literature for this study found a paucity of studies that are qualitative in
nature, or that were conducted from the students’ points of view. It was therefore the purpose of
this study to acquire the perceptions of students who had successfully completed AP courses and
were now enrolled in university programs to understand, from their perspective, how successful
the AP courses have been at minimizing the challenges faced during the transition between high
school and university.

17

Models of human development. The previous discussions of post-secondary education
and AP programs reveal that there are many factors that may contribute to the successful
transition of students from high school to post-secondary education. Tinto’s model of postsecondary integration appears to adopt an ecological perspective. Successful integration into a
post-secondary landscape is seen as the result of the interaction between the students and their
new environment. The discussion concerning AP points to the fact that showing causal
relationships between the program and post-secondary success is difficult since there are so
many variables at play. It is possible, that pre-existent conditions in the students would lead
them to be successful whether or not they had chosen to take AP courses. As with many human
endeavours, the transition from high school to post-secondary education is complex. This study
attempts to position the student at the center of their interactional landscape.
A model that linked all of the elements of an individual’s landscape was proposed by
Bronfenbrenner and provides one fundamental underpinning for the current study. He proposed
in his “Bio-ecological Systems Theory” that it was the interaction between the child’s biological
development, the immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape that
steered the child’s overall development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). His ecological approach to the
study of human development provides a model for studying subjects in a contextual, holistic
fashion. Before him, psychologists, sociologists, educators, anthropologists, and other specialists
in the social sciences each dissected the world of the child and studied a narrow piece (Brendtro,
2010).
Bronfenbrenner saw the individual as the central figure in a complex ecosystem that
contained structures with which the child would have interactions. His model suggests
concentric spheres of structures with the individual at the center. The sphere most immediate to

18

the child was considered to be the microsystem. This sphere contained the most powerful
influences of family, school, peer group, and neighborhood connections such as work, church,
youth clubs, and formal or informal mentoring. Interactions between elements of this sphere and
the individual were considered by Bronfenbrenner to be reciprocal. For example, a child’s
parents may affect the child’s beliefs and behaviors. Similarly, the child also affects the
behaviors and beliefs of the parent. He proposed that a child’s behavior reflected the
transactions within these immediate circles of influence. He felt that we could only gain an
accurate understanding of a child by examining the transactions within the family, school, peer
group, and neighborhood. Bronfenbrenner felt that ideally where these spheres intersected they
should all work in harmony to provide protective support and instill solid values. In connection
with this study, one can think of a parent handing their child off to a teacher at a school or
university in the hope that individuals in those institutions will continue the work they have
started with their child. If the picture is seamless and harmonious, then the child should develop
in a positive fashion and should be able to successfully transition from one stage of their life to
another.
The interactions between the structures within the microsystem and the interactions
between the microsystem and other larger spheres are a key idea in his theory. Bronfenbrenner
called this interractional landscape the mesosystem.
Beyond the immediate influences, Bronfenbrenner’s model proposed three more layers
that situate the individual in a larger context. The first layer is the exosystem and defines the
larger social system surrounding the child. Bronfenbrenner proposed that structures in this layer
impact the child’s development by interacting with some structure in the child’s microsystem.
The workplace of parents can provide a good example. We can visualize shift work as having an

19

impact on the development of the child as it creates an absent parent over a period of time. The
stresses created by strike situations or job relocations would be other pertinent examples.
Outside of the exosystem is the macrosystem and can be considered the outermost layer
in the child’s development. This is not a layer with specific structures as such but contains
cultural values, customs, and laws. The effects of larger principles defined by the exosystem
such as attitude towards education have a cascading influence throughout the interactions of all
other layers. Finally, he proposed the chronosystem, which encompasses the dimension of time
as it relates to a child’s environment. Here the elements can be internal, such as the
physiological changes that occur within the child as they develop, or they may be external such
as the untimely death of a parent or the separation of parents.
By providing a structure with which to consider all aspects of the child’s environment,
Bronfenbrenner’s model supports attempts to determine in what ways the child’s continued
development is helped or hindered by elements in their environment. Bronfenbrenner felt that
the nature of these interactions was dynamic rather than static. He was critical of traditional
psychological research and its tendency to study isolated behavior in artificial situations for a
very short period of time. He felt that such research could provide statistically significant
research of little use and relevance to practice. This study adopts an ecosystems approach as it
attempts to look at the structures in the student’s ecosystem that could lead to successful
transitions from high school to post-secondary education.
This ecological approach is also fundamental to the work of Bandura (1971). He sees
human behaviour as being the product of a continuous reciprocal interaction between the triad of
cognitive, behavioural, and environmental influences. In his “Social Cognitive Theory” Bandura
(2000) sees the individual as not being passively shaped by their surrounding constructs but

20

rather he envisages an interactive reciprocal landscape where people are producers as well as
products of their social setting. The cognitive component of his theory implies that individuals
act in a conscious and purposeful manner to access and process information in order to construct
an appropriate course of action for themselves. The function of this intentional behavior is to
allow the individual to exercise control over the nature and quality of their life. This agentic
behaviour is seen by Bandura as being at the heart of what it means to be human. He suggests
that:
To make their way successfully through a complex world full of challenges and hazards,
people have to make good judgments about their capabilities, anticipate the probable
effects of different events and courses of action, size up socio-structural opportunities and
constraints, and regulate their behavior accordingly. These belief systems are a working
model of the world that enables people to achieve desired outcomes and avoid untoward
ones (2000, p.3).
Bandura proposes three modes by which agency is achieved: direct personal agency,
proxy agency, and collective agency. He believes that the most pervasive of these is personal
agency or self-efficacy. This is the belief in one’s capabilities to effect some measure of control
over the events in their lives. As students move through the landscape of high school and on into
university, they are confronted with developmental challenges. A strong belief in one’s abilities
to successfully navigate through these waters and produce desired results, while at the same time
avoiding possible difficulties, provides people with the motivation to persevere when confronted
with these challenges. Conversely, those that don’t feel the same sense of agency have little
incentive to act or persevere.

21

Agency through proxy could be illustrated in an academic setting, where the teacher or
professor can act on behalf of the student in a proxy role. By encouraging the student and
expressing confidence in them the teacher can contribute to the sense of self-efficacy that is
developing in the student. Striving to achieve a new skill requires a desire to master the skill and
also the belief that the skill can be mastered. Our own expectations influence our behaviour but
other people’s expectations of us can influence our behaviour as well (Bronfenbrenner & Boyd,
2008, p.139). The “Pygmalion Effect” implies that people will move toward an anticipated view
of what they will become. In a learning situation, the expectations placed on students by
teachers, peers, parents, culture can lead to a self-fulfilling prophetic result. If we have
reasonable expectations of students and constantly convey the message that we expect them to do
their best then there is a possibility that this will be achieved. Expectations are critical. In this
regard we can see that interactions between teachers, professors, and students are crucial to the
development of the self belief system of the student. By exploring the dimensions of the
classroom in both the high school and university through the eyes of students it is hoped that the
current study will reveal factors in these environments that are important in this regard.
Education is a human endeavour that takes place largely in a social setting. Bandura
(2001) sees self-efficacy as developed in a social milieu as the third critical mode of agency. In
studies of academic systems, it has been shown that:
the stronger the perceived collective efficacy, the higher the group’s motivational
investment in their undertaking, the stronger their staying power in the face of
impediments and setbacks, the higher their morale and resilience to stressors and the
greater the performance accomplishments (p. 14).

22

This statement summarizing research in the area indicates the importance of the
interactions that take place in an academic setting, particularly in the classroom. Bandura sees
collective efficacy as an emergent property of the group built on the shared knowledge and skills
of the members of the group. He feels that the interactions of the group have a synergistic
dynamic that promotes the self-efficacy of individuals in the group. Earley (1994) addressed the
question of culture with regard to collective agency and found that perceived personal efficacy
can contribute to the productive functioning of members of a collectivistic culture just as it
contributes to the functioning of people raised in individualistic cultures. This has implications
in Canada regarding the education of different cultural groups in both school and post-secondary
settings. Given the importance of this dynamic it is perhaps surprising that it was missing from
the initial model of post-secondary engagement and integration proposed by Tinto and was only
added at a later date as a result of further research (Tinto, 1997). In addition, the synergistic
potential of the group dynamic also seems to be missing in general from the research work
conducted on AP programs. The current research attempts to address this important omission
and is considered in the research design.
Managing and organising the many variables involved in the development of humans is
difficult. Another useful model in this regard is that proposed by Benson, Scales, Leffert, and
Roehlkepartain (1999) and also adopts an ecological perspective. Their work describes a set of
assets that they feel are critical to the healthy development of children. These assets are
described as “developmental”, and are separated broadly into internal and external clusters. This
division reflects the bio-ecological nature of both Bronfenbrenner’s and Bandura’s theoretical
constructs. The analysis of sources of support for the developing child by Benson et al. provides
an example of their ecological perspective as it is considered from the perspective of the family,

23

school, peers, and neighborhood. The assets are supported by extensive research (Scales &
Leffert, 1999) and have been utilized in longitudinal studies of school children in the United
States (Benson et al , 1999).
Findings suggest that there is a direct correlation between the number of assets that a
child has in their ecosystem and the success that they achieve at school, as defined by course
completion and timely graduation. The converse is shown to be the case with a reduced amount
of assets (Scales, Benson, Leffert, Blyth, & Dale, 2000). An interesting component of this work
deals with the resilience of children in the face of adversity. Children who should find
themselves at risk because of socio-economic conditions in their lives are found to benefit from a
landscape rich in assets. Amongst this asset base, replacements might be found for gaps that
potentially put the developing child at risk. An example might be a healthy male role model
filling the gap left by a deceased father. The overriding premise of the work on developmental
assets is that the entire community needs to invest in the raising of children. The components of
the ecosystem need to be examined since it is the interactions between them and the individual
that leads to healthy development.
Implicit in the discussion of human development to this point is the idea that human
experience is set in a temporal framework. The model of Bronfenbrenner (1971) includes a time
construct called the chronosystem and there is a strong temporal component to the construct of
self-efficacy. Bandura (2000) suggested that people continuously evolve efficacy beliefs based
on past experiences, current appraisals, and reflections on future options as they strive for control
over their life circumstances. A recent model of how humans build time constructs has been
proposed by Zimbardo and Boyd (1999; 2008). In their model of “Time Perspectives” they
provide a framework to conceptualize this aspect of human development. It is their assertion that

24

our perspective on time is one of the most powerful influences on human decisions, and yet
individuals are largely unaware of its role (2008, p.xiv). Although the way we construct our past
experiences and our present actions, current research points to our future time perspectives as a
critical concept when looking at student achievement and motivation and is considered here as an
important underpinning of this study (Kauffman & Hurmann, 2004).
When individuals enter the school system they go from a relatively unstructured day to
one of timetables and routine. As seen by Zimbardo and Boyd (2008), “the primary function of
our educational system is the domestication of present-hedonistic children and transformation of
them into future oriented adults ready to assume their place”...in society (p. 288). No one is born
with a future time perspective. It is a learned concept and is essential for success in school. In
order to be successful, “talent, intelligence, and ability are necessary, but they are not sufficient.
Discipline, perseverance, and a sense of self-efficacy are also required (2008, 137). Data from
studies using the “Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory” suggest that these requirements are to
be found in people that score highly in the future orientation dimension of the inventory (2008, p.
144). Zimbardo found that the highest grades in introductory psychology courses at Stanford
University were earned by students who were the most future oriented. They almost never get
incompletes or require extensions to complete their work. He refutes the argument that it may be
that these people are smarter and instead proposes that people with this future orientation do
“...appropriate planning, scheduling of time, and anticipating detours and traps that might appear
on the path to success” (ibid, p. 147).
Developing the ability to delay gratification and turn away from instant forms of pleasure
together with the positive beliefs for the future increase the likelihood of completing a task
(Bembenutty & Karabenick, 2004). Miller and Brickman (2004) found that although an

25

envisioned future may be some years away for students, it has an impact in the present by
encouraging them to develop proximal sub-goals. These sub-goals are reflected in a greater
degree of engagement shown by the student. There is a sense of purpose that drives their
behaviour. At this point it is suggested that more research needs to be conducted in this area,
particularly with regard to the nature and genesis of these goals (Miller & Brickman, 2004;
McInerney, 2004).
Motivation and achievement in educational systems seem to be automatic for some and
elusive for others. Central to a student’s motivation is the connection between who they hope to
become and the activities in which they are currently engaged (Kauffman & Hurmann, 2004;
Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Lacante, 2004). If they perceive that the material they are learning has
utility to their future aspirations it will have a positive effect on their motivation. From a
multicultural perspective, the “Immigrant Optimism Hypothesis” suggests that a family
investment in education is a way to achieve upward mobility in the distant future. Future goals
are also seen as a protective factor in the face of frequent school failure. Perceived lack of future
opportunities may weaken the motivational force of the future and lead to structural
disadvantages in the education system (Phalet, Andriesson, & Lens, 2004). In addition to
relevance, the activities must be at an appropriate level of challenge. Activities that are either
too hard or too easy are not optimal for motivation (Shernoff, Csikszentmihalyi, Schneider, &
Shernoff, 2003). This connection between the motivation of students and their future aspirations
is felt to be critical (Kauffman & Hurmann, 2004). Phalet et al (2004) see the lack of temporal
components as a weakness of most models of motivation.
Current brain research. This research looks at the time period involving the last two
years of high school and the first few years of post-secondary education. This is a critical period

26

in the development of individuals during which they are involved in the gradual transformation
from adolescence to adulthood. As a necessary part of this gradual process individuals learn to
deal with challenges that are physiological, biological, psychological, and social in nature. They
are moving from “dependency to independence, autonomy, and maturity” (Geldard & Geldard,
2010, p. 4).
Recent research using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) has called into question some
of the long held beliefs concerning this period of human development. The findings appear to
have important ramifications with regard to the transition to post-secondary education and have
particular relevance to this study. With new technologies come new findings. Prior to the
advent of MRI technology, brain development was studied mostly by using cadavers, and much
of the information concerning brain function was determined from studying brains that were in
some way damaged. MRI heralded a fresh avenue of research, since it meant that it was possible
to study healthy brains of all ages for the first time. Prior to MRI research it was widely held
that the brain was largely a finished product by the time that the child had reached the age of 12.
In psychological literature traced back to the work of psychologists such as Piaget (1948), it is
believed at this age the child is developing their highest level of cognitive functioning as they
transition from the confines of concrete thinking to being able to deal with ideas, concepts and
abstractions (Geldard & Geldard, 2010, p. 7).
At the present time researchers are beginning to question this basic premise as it is
apparent that the brain of the adolescent is far from mature. In fact, both gray matter and white
matter undergo extensive structural changes well past puberty and currently researchers are
suggesting that the framework of adolescence should be extended beyond the accepted teenage
years until at least the mid-twenties (Wallis, 2008). Longitudinal studies of healthy teenage

27

brains indicate a drastic reshaping of our brains that continues until the early twenties. The
importance of this is that this reshaping is occurring at the same time as the transition from
secondary to post-secondary education. Rather than consider the individual as a finished product
when they leave secondary school, the research suggests that they are very much still a work in
progress. These changes in brain structure concern areas responsible for understanding the
logical consequences of personal decisions and also indicate a growing co-ordination of
cognitive capacity, both of which play key roles in continued success beyond secondary school.
This final reshaping and pruning of our brains affects the pre-frontal cortex, which has
been called the “CEO” and is responsible for executive functions such as “planning, setting
priorities, organizing thoughts, suppressing impulses, weighing the consequences of one's
actions” (Wallis, 2008, p. 2). An irony here is that at the same time that the individual is striving
for autonomy and independence, the physiological development of their brains suggests that they
could be at risk in this endeavour as they may not be able to register the consequences of their
behaviour. This has obvious ramifications for students as they enter post-secondary education
where they may struggle with their new found autonomy. Being able to delay gratification and
putting off what you want to do in favour of what you have to do is an executive decision
function important to academic success. This current MRI research suggests that decisions such
as this may be difficult for many individuals and points to a weakness in the assumption that
individuals are ready for their post-secondary experience.
Further evidence of the weakness of the assumption that graduating high school students
are ready for post-secondary education is suggested by research on another part of the brain, the
cerebellum. This part of the brain is shown to be very susceptible to environmental influences
and is the part of the brain that changes the most during the teen years. MRI shows that it

28

continues to develop well into the early twenties. Previously it was thought to be responsible for
co-ordinated movement only. It has now been shown to be involved in the co-ordination of our
cognitive processes as well. It appears that, just as lack of development in this area could lead to
physical clumsiness, it could also lead to mental clumsiness (Spinks, 2002). While it is not
directly related to cognitive functions the research suggests that it facilitates these tasks. As
such, many of the complex academic and social tasks encountered by the adolescent in postsecondary education could be thought of as relying on the developing capacity of the cerebellum
(Spinks, 2002). What this research seems to suggest is that during the early years of postsecondary education, there is still a significant amount of brain development occurring. It is
possible that during this period of time of cognitive co-ordination that the individual may appear
to become smarter and become more proficient at handling cognitive challenges. The first two
years at post-secondary institutions are the danger years during which most attrition occurs. It is
therefore intriguing to speculate that this current research evidence might point to a significant
factor in this attrition. Certainly it lends support to the idea that we might need to rethink the
design of the transition from secondary to post-secondary education if we are to reduce this loss
of human capital.
Conceptual Summary
This review of the literature, together with the information contained in the preliminary
study, along with the researcher’s own experience and insights contribute to the conceptual
framework. This framework provides an organizational structure for the primary concepts
related to the transition of AP students to university. It illustrates “the main things to be studiedthe key factors, constructs or variables-and the presumed relationships among them (Miles &
Huberman, 1994, p. 18).

29

The research on post-secondary education points to a number of key variables critical to
the transitional process. Interactions between the student, their peers, and faculty are seen as
critical to the integration of the student into their new environment. Research points to the idea
that these interactions should be intentional and supportive rather than accidental. Knowledge of
the antecedent characteristics of students is seen as being important in understanding the attrition
at university. In this regard, family background, individual attributes, and previous academic
ability are considered. Critical individual attributes are those involving self-efficacy and
resilience. These characteristics promote and permit a future based orientation that is seen as
being instrumental to success at university. At this point we can begin to see an interactive
landscape where the intrinsic characteristics of the students intersect with extrinsic aspects of
new learning environments. The complex interplay between these two sets of variables
ultimately determines whether or not the individual will be able to successfully transition from
the learning environment of high school to the learning environment of post-secondary
institutions.
The research on the AP program also points to the antecedent characteristics of the
students, but in a different light. Determining that there is a causal connection between AP
courses and the successful preparation of students for their post-secondary experience proves
difficult since it is difficult to control for the effect of antecedent characteristics. Other research
points to the rigor of the secondary school experience as being a key indicator. The greater
demands placed on the students at secondary school in areas such as preparation for exams,
writing skills, and general studying and reading demands are implicated. In this body of
research, the interactions between the students and the teacher seem to lack consideration. Major
concerns regarding teacher efficacy have a cognitive aspect and concern such aspects as

30

efficiency in delivering the course material and performance based criteria. In the context of the
conceptual framework of this study then, we can visualise the learning environment provided by
the AP courses as being the crucible in which the students are challenged, and may be
encouraged to develop skills and behaviours that could ultimately impact their transition to postsecondary education.
The research of human development underscores the importance of adopting an
ecological perspective. Key to most models is the idea of interaction between the intrinsic
factors of the individual and the extrinsic factors of their environment. Implicit in this
interaction is the notion that it is reciprocal and that individuals are both products and producers
of their social setting. In the context of this study we can visualise the individual as being both
shaped by and shaping their learning environment. A critical outcome of these reciprocal
interactions for the students is their development of a sense of agency or ability to exert some
level of control over the future course of their lives. Interactions with peers and instructors are
critical in this development as is the ability to master challenges as they occur. A future
orientation appears to be a powerful motivational construct and enables students to make
difficult choices as they navigate their way through learning environments. The ability to delay
gratification in anticipation of future outcomes is an example. With this acknowledgment of
these aspects of human development we have come full circle to the discussion on the successful
integration into post-secondary education.
Conceptual Framework
Conceptually, AP courses are seen as providing a learning environment in which the
students are given the opportunity to develop a skill set that may allow them to experience a
smooth transition to post-secondary education. The development of the skill set is determined by

31

the interaction between constructs that are both intrinsic and extrinsic to the student. Intrinsic
constructs encompass cognitive, affective, and biological elements. The overriding construct,
however, is that of self-efficacy. Constructs that are extrinsic to the student include human
elements such as peers and teachers as well as those that pertain to the courses themselves. In
keeping with the idea that individuals are both products and producers of their social system, the
students are both shaped by and, in turn, shape the learning environment. In this way the AP
environment is seen as responding to the needs of the student. The effects of these interactions
can lead to improved levels of self-efficacy, which in turn should contribute to successful
transitions to post-secondary education.

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Methodology
Introduction
The purpose of this case research study was to explore the role of AP courses in the
transition from high school to university. The study explored this phenomenon as seen through
the eyes of students who had been involved with these courses and who were now attending
university. Through the perceptions of their experiences the study attempted to illuminate the
factors that may have been instrumental to the students in their transitional process. My interest
was to respond to the seemingly continuous and significant loss of human capital that occurs
during the transition from high school to post-secondary education (Statistics Canada, 2008;
Blais, 2009). My belief was that a richer detailed understanding of this process would enable
educators on both sides of the transitional bridge to proceed from a more informed position when
considering changes.
In order to better understand this phenomenon the study addressed five research
questions: (a) Did the participants perceive that there were benefits from having taken AP
courses and if so, what were these perceived benefits? (b) Did the participants feel that
participation in AP courses had prepared them for the challenges of university? (c) What were
the perceptions of the participants regarding the challenges of taking AP courses? (d) What
factors did the participants consider to have been important in their choice to take AP courses?
(e) When considering the journey through high school and on into university, what factors were
considered to facilitate the journey and what factors were considered to hinder the journey?
This chapter describes the research methodology of the study and includes discussion of
the following areas: (a) rationale for the chosen research approach, (b) description of the research
sample, (c) summary of information needed, (d) overview of the research design, (e) methods of

33

data collection, (f) methods of analysis and synthesis of data, (g) ethical considerations, (h)
enhancing quality and credibility of the research, and (i) potential limitations and strengths of the
study. The chapter concludes with a brief summary.
Rationale for Research Approach
The theoretical underpinnings of this research are in social constructivism, or the notion
that individuals construct their own reality. Each individual constructs their own reality as a
result of their interactions with the world in which they live. In this way the individual
experiences, interprets, and builds an individual understanding of their world in a particular
context and at a particular point in time. The journey for students through high school and on
into university was the particular context of this study and it was the students’ conceptualization
of this journey that was at the heart of the study.
This research reflects a phenomenological perspective to human experience. As such it
attempts to enter the subjective world of the individuals in question in an attempt to understand
how and what meaning they construct from the interactions in their daily lives (Bogdan &
Biklen, 1998). A phenomenological perspective is holistic rather than reductionist as in
quantitative analysis. The holistic approach recognises that interactions between individual
components in a phenomenological landscape can create new emergent properties. Implicit in
this approach is an emphasis on discovery and description and the objectives are to extract and
interpret the meaning of the discovered experiences (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998).
As well as there being a general paucity of studies concerning AP programming (Sadler
et al., 2010), there is a general tendency towards adopting a quantitative stance. The trend
appears to be to look for correlations between participation in AP courses and post-secondary
performance criteria, such as grade point average and graduation rates. While proponents of the

34

programme look for support in these statistics, detractors point to the difficulty of determining
causality since there are so many variables (Sadler et al., 2010). Controlling for these variables
is difficult and so we are left with the possibility that while post-secondary success may be
linked to participation in AP courses, it is just as likely that the success could be attributed to the
characteristics of the students that motivated them to take the courses in the first place
(Dougherty, et al., 2006).
Exploring the impact of involvement in AP courses then is limited using a quantitative
stance and it was my contention that in order to elicit the rich data necessary to understand this
phenomenon it was important to adopt a qualitative stance. There are vital intangibles such as
self-efficacy that are critical to this transitional process and it has been argued that there are no
acceptable, valid, and reliable instruments to measure this component (Patton, 2002). In my
view the fundamental assumptions and underpinnings of qualitative research fit well with this
study. Using a phenomenological approach I hoped to discover the meaning of the lived
experience of the participants through an intensive description and analysis of the phenomenon.
It was necessary for me to maintain a neutral position during this discovery process to allow the
perceptual constructs of the participants to come to light in an organic way without the restriction
of preconceived ideas. Case studies involve examining a contemporary phenomenon within its
natural context using multiple sources of evidence in order to gain an in-depth understanding of
the meaning of the phenomenon for those involved. Merriam (1998) indicates that the
qualitative case study is an ideal design for understanding and interpreting educational
phenomena. The present research fits well in this context because it sought to better understand
the meaning that the participants had constructed for themselves concerning their participation in
AP courses in high school.

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The Research Sample
A purposeful sampling procedure was used to select the participants for the study. The
logic of using purposeful sampling is so that information rich subjects can be selected to satisfy
the emphasis on in-depth understanding inherent in the research design (Patton, 2002). In light
of this, I sought to locate individuals who had taken AP courses and had then gone on to
university. With permission from the high school at the center of this study, I obtained a list of
students who had taken AP courses. A time frame was chosen that ensured the students had
experienced at least a full year of university. For the pilot study, a random list was constructed
and consisted of six females and six males. All twelve responded but some of the students were
not available for the pilot project due to their geographic location. Those that had expressed an
interest but were not included in the pilot study were contacted at a later point for the current
study. A snowball sampling strategy (Patton, 2002) was also used to refer other students. My
interests here were twofold: (a) I wanted to obtain more than a local perspective and so sought
participants who had attended universities of different sizes and different geographical location
and (b) I looked for negative case studies to ensure that the research considered all aspects of the
phenomenon. In this way my work benefitted from being informed by the perspectives of
multiple students. I reasoned that this would provide greater support for the findings.
The final criteria for the selection of the participants were:
1. A balance of female and male participants was to be established.
2. A variety of post-secondary institutions was to be established.
3. All participants had to have taken at least one AP course in high school.
4. All participants had to have completed the AP course, including the concluding exam.

36

As a result, the final participant sample included nine females and six males who were studying
at a number of different post-secondary institutions of varied size and geographic location, both
within and outside of the province of Manitoba.
Summary of Information Needed
This case study focused on twelve university students from four institutions located
within Canada and the United States. In order to understand the role that participation in AP
courses had played in their journey through high school and into university three research
questions were explored. The information needed to answer these questions was determined by
the conceptual framework and fell into two broad categories: perceptual, and theoretical. The
information included:
1. Students’ perceptions of the preparation they had received for university as a result of
taking AP courses.
2. Students’ perceptions of the rewards and challenges of taking AP courses.
3. Student’s perceptions of the factors that had facilitated or impeded their journey in
this transitional process.
4. An ongoing review of the literature providing the theoretical background for this
study. Two primary areas were considered: topics that were connected to the
developing conceptual framework, and topics related to qualitative research
methodologies
Overview of Research Design
The following list summarizes the steps used to carry out this study.
1. Prior to conducting this study a pilot project was carried out. A selected review of the
literature concerning post-secondary education, AP courses, and models of human

37

development was conducted. An ethics application was completed and three students
were contacted and interviewed. The data were analyzed in three iterations and were
used to explore the underlying structures of this phenomenon. This analysis, together
with the ongoing literature review, led to the development of the conceptual
framework used to frame the current study.
2. Following agreement of the proposal, I acquired approval from the ethics committee
at Brandon University to proceed with the research. The ethics review procedure
outlined all procedures and processes needed to ensure adherence to standards put
forth for the study of human subjects, including participants’ confidentiality and
informed consent. Potential research participants were contacted by mail, and those
who agreed to participate were sent a copy of the research proposal, letter of consent,
and the interview questionnaire protocol.
3. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with fifteen university students
and were recorded in their entirety. These interviews were carried out in person
during the summer of 2011.
4. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and forwarded to the participants for member
checking.
5. The transcripts were dissected and analysed according to coding schemes developed
during the pilot project. This process occurred concurrently with the interviews. A
constant checking and rechecking process occurred and any new emerging themes
were considered in the light of the ongoing literature review and discussion with
colleagues. Verification was sought in future interviews and past data.

38

Literature Review
An ongoing review of literature was conducted to inform this study. The literature
review undertaken for the pilot project and findings from that study led to the identification of
four main topics: post-secondary education, AP courses, human development, and factors
affecting motivation. The focus of the research was to gain a better understanding of the factors
that underline this transitional process in the lives of individuals. I felt that it was important to
adopt an ecological perspective since the transitional process in question was multi-factorial in
nature. Drawing upon the ecological nature of the work of Bronfenbrenner (1979), Bandura
(1997), and Benson et al (1999), variables both intrinsic and extrinsic to the participants were
considered. Further to this, a body of work related to qualitative methodologies was examined in
order to position the study in the current research landscape.
Data Collection Methods
Theoretical underpinning. In this work I am proceeding from the position that our
perceptions of reality are highly subjective. In allegorical terms, the maps we create of the
landscapes of our lives are merely our own representation of that reality. As such they will
include omissions and distortions of that reality and may not be representative of the realities of
others. This understanding has two implications for the current study. The first implication is
with regard to the lived experience of the participants. Even though each person creates a unique
map, there are in fact common themes within the maps. The participants in this study all shared
a set of common experiences insofar as they had all been involved in taking AP courses in the
same high school and had then experienced the transition from a high school environment to that
of university. Each of them would have a different perspective of these events, but through
careful analysis, I held that the basic elements of this shared experience could be identified

39

(Patton, 2002; Bogdan & Biklen, 1998). The second implication is with regard to myself as the
researcher. I recognise that consistent with the previous line of reasoning is the fact that, without
any corroboration, the findings from this study are merely my own representation of the
phenomenon in question. Throughout this study I have tried to remain cognisant of this and have
strived to provide an honest representation of the phenomenon.
Phase I: Pilot project. The initial project was carried out in the fall of 2010, under the
supervision of the Faculty of Education at the University of Manitoba. Based on a review of the
literature surrounding the topic, my own background as a teacher, input from other teachers, and
university faculty, a questionnaire was developed and administered to three individuals. Each
interview was transcribed verbatim and returned to the participant for member checking. This
was to ensure accuracy and allow the participants to make any clarifications that they felt were
appropriate. Each interview was coded and analysed before proceeding to the next one.
During three iterations of this process I proposed a coding scheme and a conceptual
framework based on the ongoing literature and personal experience. Feedback was sought from
a number of sources such as parents, high school teachers, principals, counsellors, and students,
as well as post-secondary faculty. Raw data was not used in the feedback process. Through the
process of seeking multiple perspectives and maintaining an open stance to the findings, I was
able to make refinements to the coding scheme and conceptual framework. These refinements
were explored for verification in successive interviews. The final coding scheme and conceptual
framework used in the current study, therefore, has benefitted from the input of a number of
individuals with different perspectives on the phenomenon. By maintaining an open and
reflexive stance I was able to consider alternatives to the developing structure underlying the
shared experiences of the participants (Bogdan & Biklen, 2008).

40

Phase II: Interviews. The interview was selected as the primary method for data
collection in this research (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998). The interview method was felt to be the
most use in the study because it has the potential to elicit rich thick descriptions that could go
beyond the limitations of responses obtained from quantitative instruments (Patton, 2002, p.
193). Further to this, it gave me the opportunity to clarify statements made by the participants
and to probe for additional information in order to try and capture the participants’ perspectives.
The benefits of interviews are tempered however by limitations inherent in their use. Rich
description of an event is predicated on the ability of the participant to articulate ideas and
requires skill from the interviewer to elicit the necessary information. At the same time as
eliciting this information, however, I had to be cognisant of the language that I used in order not
to shape the formation of ideas for the participants. Since editing the transcripts by the
researcher could have introduced a source of research bias, the interviews were transcribed
verbatim and were sent to the participants for them to check. This member check process also
ensured that the participants had the chance to review what they had said and clarify any of their
statements. This process was held to be important in order to support the trustworthiness of the
findings.
Interview schedule of questions and pilot interviews. The study’s three research
questions were used as a framework to develop interview questions for the pilot project.
Findings from the pilot project together with an on-going review of the literature led to the
development of a series of open-ended questions which enabled flexibility to allow new
directions to emerge during the interview. The interviews conducted in the pilot project also
gave direction to the probes that might be required to produce the rich description that was
sought. The questions were reviewed by faculty and members of the ethics review board.

41

Revisions were incorporated into the final interview schedule. The final interview schedule is
included as Appendix C.
Interview process. Contact was made with each of the individuals who had agreed to be
part of the study. A letter of invitation was sent outlining the purpose of the study, a brief
description of the interview process, and how the confidentiality of the participant would be
handled. The participant selected a time that was mutually agreeable for the interview. Once
this had been done, a copy of the interview instrument was sent to the participant in order for
them to gather their thoughts, ask questions for clarification, and to provide for a more rich and
thoughtful interview experience. The interviews took place during the summer of 2011 and were
conducted in person. Prior to the start of their interview the letter of consent previously sent was
reviewed and signed. Each interview was taped in its entirety according to the protocol and was
later transcribed verbatim. Once this had been done, a copy of the transcript was sent to each
participant for member checking. Finally, when the member checks had been completed, the
interview transcripts were coded and used for further analysis.
Methods for Data Analysis and Synthesis
The challenge throughout the data collection and analysis was to make sense out of a
large amount of data, reduce the volume of information, identify significant patterns, and
construct a framework to organise the data. The formal process of data analysis began by
assigning alphanumeric codes according to categories and descriptors of the initial conceptual
framework. Using flip chart paper and wall space, the interview transcripts were dissected and
placed on these sheets according to where they fitted into the developing conceptual framework.
Prior to this process of dissection and analysis, all names of the participants were removed in

42

order to limit the potential bias inherent in participant identification. In this way the transcripts
were coded without associating any of the material or data with any particular individual.
Coding was initiated based on the conceptual framework that had been developed and
refined during the iterations of analysis that had been carried out during the pilot project. Since
the pilot project was based on a small sample of three students, I believed that further
development and refinement of the conceptual framework was possible based on the findings of
a larger sample. In an attempt to ensure that coding schemes and categories were used
consistently, colleagues were asked to code sample interviews. The prior removal of all
identifiers ensured that confidentiality of the subjects was maintained. Areas of concern were
discussed and reconciled within the context of the evolving conceptual framework. As well,
various procedural safeguards were taken to address subjectivity and strengthen credibility of the
research. In this regard, input from individuals with different perspectives on the transitional
process was sought. This input was obtained from parents, teachers, principals, counsellors, and
university instructors. Further refinements were made to the conceptual framework as a result of
these inputs, new findings, and the ongoing literature review.
During analysis, the transcripts were dissected and rearranged into separate categories in
order to develop the detail in each category. The ensuing process of synthesis involved piecing
these fragments together to reconstruct an integrated explanation. Overall, the approach was to
identify aspects of the transcripts that indicated emerging patterns and themes that described the
landscape of the research topic. In this process three approaches were used to explore the depth
and breadth of the findings. Initially each category was deep-drilled to examine and organise the
threads within. In the second place, as themes emerged that spanned across the categories, they
were explored in more detail and were delineated. The third layer of processing involved

43

reflecting the emerging structure contained in the research back against the findings of the
ongoing literature review. In this way the current research was able to be positioned with respect
to prior research. Although there were three strands to the synthesis process, they were not
carried out in isolation from each other. Rather they were integrated into an iterative process
throughout this phase.
As part of the process of data processing I kept a journal in which I recorded reflections
concerning the developing structure. This process enabled me to pose questions about the
implications of the research, which were used at a later stage in the formulation of conclusions
and recommendations for future research, policy, and programming alternatives.
Ethical Considerations
In any research study, ethical issues relating to the protection of the participants are of
paramount concern. Two ethical reviews were conducted for the current study. These reviews
were conducted by the respective ethics review boards of the University of Manitoba and
Brandon University. Although it was anticipated that no serious ethical threats were posed to
any of the participants or their well-being, it was important to be cognisant of the concerns at all
times and various safeguards were employed to ensure the protection and rights of the
participants.
The central ethical consideration in the study was the protection of the rights of the
participants. To this end, informed consent procedures were employed. Participants were
provided with a detailed description of the processes that would be carried out during the study.
They were given time to peruse the document so that they could ask questions and fully
understand the process. Further to this, the participants were then required to sign a copy of the
same document indicating their informed consent. The second consideration was respecting the

44

rights and interests of the participants when considering the reporting and dissemination of the
data. In this regard, confidentiality of the participants was paramount. Random pseudonyms
were used and any other possible identification characteristics of other individuals and
organisations were removed as part of this commitment to confidentiality. Secure storage of the
research-related records and data was maintained, and nobody other than the researcher had
access to this material. Original data was only seen by the researcher and any assistance from
colleagues during the data analysis phase involved data from which all identifiers had been
removed.
Enhancing Quality and Credibility
Quality and credibility should be the aim of all research, whether it is quantitative or
qualitative in nature. It could be argued that all research attempts to describe a “truth” that may
exist in the world. Throughout the history of the search for truth, there are many examples
where the search was limited by the technology available. Telescopes, microscopes, particle
accelerators, DNA analysis, and electricity, have all been used at some point to replace an old
truth with a new one. How much trust we put in these new truths very much depends on the
quality and credibility of the research.
In the recent past, much was made over experiments which revealed that untold amounts
of energy could be created from sea water by splitting the hydrogen from the oxygen
(Fleischman & Pons, 1989). The biggest problem with this research was that no-one was able to
replicate the experiment and consequently its credibility was dashed. In this case the new truth
has not been accepted as it has not been confirmed. On the other hand people may be unwilling
to accept a new truth because it goes against conventional wisdom. The fairly benign topic of
stomach ulcers provides a good example. Prior to the work of Warren and Marshall in 1982, the

45

accepted truth concerning ulcers was that they did not have a microbial origin. Pharmaceutical
backed scientists attempted to discredit the findings, only to be slaughtered when one of the
discoverers, in a carefully constructed experiment, used himself as a guinea pig and successfully
gave himself an ulcer by inoculating himself with the bacterium. Today, sales of ulcer
medications have fallen away and most ulcers are now treated with antibiotics. For their work,
the two scientists in question were awarded the Nobel Prize. In this case an old truth was
replaced with a new truth.
The waters become murkier when we consider the possibility that truth is socially and
individually constructed leading to multiple definitions of truth itself. That this is the case is
shown by researchers actually defining what it is that they mean by truth. In his discussion of
validity, Hammersley (1990) stated that when using the term validity, he in fact meant truth
which he interpreted as, “the extent to which an account accurately represents the social
phenomena to which it refers” (p. 57). We can also add another layer of complexity by
considering that the language used to describe what is meant by truth is itself a social construct.
These examples illustrate the fluid nature of the concept of truth. Whether a new truth is
rejected or accepted may speak to the quality and credibility of the research, but in large part
speaks to the world views held by the audience. In this fluid environment I admitted to myself
that my thoughts are as unique and idiosyncratic as others. I proceeded in this research by
recognising myself as part of a socially constructed landscape, and I acknowledged the
ambiguities that are a necessary part of living in this world of multiple realities. I tried to remain
aware throughout the research that striving for the truth of the phenomenon may be difficult, but
what I could strive for was to be honest in my research.

46

Traditionally, the concerns over quality and credibility of the research have been
addressed through the notions of validity (the extent to which the research measured what it
purported to measure) and reliability (the consistency with which it measured it over time). In
other words, how much trust can we place in the research. Lincoln and Guba (1985) proposed
that a new language and new concepts were appropriate when discussing the quality and
credibility of qualitative research. They suggested a system that paralleled the one used in
quantitative research. In their system, credibility, transferability, dependability, and
confirmability become the qualitative equivalents to their quantitative counterparts of internal
validity, external validity, reliability, and objectivity (pp. 76-77). More recently qualitative
researchers have argued that this creation of a separate lexicon has not led to greater support for
qualitative studies. Morse, Barrett, Mayan, Olson, and Spiers (2002) suggest that:
the terms reliability and validity remain pertinent in qualitative inquiry and should be
maintained. We are concerned that introducing parallel terminology and criteria
marginalizes qualitative inquiry from mainstream science and scientific legitimacy
(para. 13).
The same group of researchers adopt the position that strategies for ensuring rigor must
be built into the entire qualitative research process rather than attended to in a post-hoc analysis.
They challenge the practice of post-hoc analysis and suggest that these processes have little to do
with the actual attainment of reliability and validity. They argue that while a post-hoc discussion
concerning trustworthiness may evaluate the rigor of the research, it is not sufficient to ensure
rigor (Morse et al., 2002, p. 9). By building rigor into the entire process they argue that the
researcher is required to correct both the direction of the analysis and the development of the
study as necessary, thus ensuring reliability and validity of the completed project.

47

In recognising myself as a product of a socially constructed landscape and by determining
that I wished to be honest in my portrayal of the phenomenon, I sought rigor throughout my
study. I constantly challenged myself to look for, recognise, and attempt to control for potential
biases that might be present throughout the design, implementation, and analysis of the study. In
this iterative fashion of moving back and forth between the design of the research and its
implementation I considered the congruence between question formulation, literature,
recruitment, data collection strategies, and analysis in an attempt to ensure rigor.
Although I support the position of Morse et al (2002) and in consideration of my relative
inexperience as a qualitative researcher I felt it was necessary for me to have a framework from
which I could consider the rigor of my study. I chose to follow the language of Lincoln and
Guba (1985) to ensure adherence to a recognised set of standards. In this context I considered
the following topics: a) credibility, b) dependability, c) confirmability, and d) transferability.
Credibility. This criterion of credibility (or validity) poses the question of whether the
findings are accurate and credible. In recognition of the socially constructed nature of
experience this is considered from the standpoint of the researcher, the participants, and the
reader. It is a key component of the research design, speaks to the honesty of the research, and
entails a concern with all phases of the research including design, implementation, analysis and
interpretation of the findings.
Assessing the credibility or validity of the design and implementation of the study
involves looking at the congruence between aspects of the methodology of the study. This
methodological aspect to validity involves consideration of the interrelationship between the
research design components: the purpose of the study, the conceptual framework, the research
questions, and the research methods. Assessing the credibility or validity of the analytical and

48

interpretive stages is somewhat dependent on methodological validity, but it goes further in that
it directs attention to the quality and rigor with which the researcher interprets and analyzes data
in relation to the research design.
To enhance the methodological validity of the study, I adopted the position that
experience is socially constructed. I deliberately sought participants who could provide the rich
detail that I felt was necessary to describe the phenomenon. I felt it was necessary to obtain
varied perspectives and actively sought participants who had transitioned to different postsecondary institutions. My concern in my sampling was that I could achieve a level of saturation
and replication of data that would give me a sense that most, if not all, aspects of the
phenomenon had been uncovered (Morse, 1991). I understood that more data did not necessarily
lead to more information and that one occurrence of the data was potentially as useful as many in
understanding the transitional process (Ritchie, Lewis, & Elam, 2003). I understood that my
concern was to describe the transitional process in a meaningful way rather than making
generalised hypothesis statements.
Beyond finding participants that simply verified my thinking, I actively sought examples
of experiences at multiple post-secondary institutions and also looked for negative cases, such
that I could attempt to understand aspects of the phenomenon that were initially less than
obvious. In the data gathering phase, I adopted an open stance from which I could respond to
new ideas suggested by the data collected and by the ongoing literature review. This enabled me
to probe for understanding of new concepts as they emerged. I proposed very open ended
questions to allow the participants to describe their own experiences without any preconceived
constructs in mind. Finally, since the language used by the participants is itself a personal

49

construct and subject to personal idiosyncracies, I reflected my understanding of the descriptions
of the participants back to them to ensure that I had understood it as they saw it.
The challenge to attain validity was maintained in the interpretive stage of the study.
Data was collected and analyzed concurrently ensuring an ongoing reflection between the
discovered information and what I needed to know. This iterative process together with a
responsive position ensured that new emergent elements could be verified in data already
collected and reconfirmed in new data. Collaboration was sought from various stakeholders in
the process. This was done not only to confirm my thinking but also to offer alternative
interpretations to the data. Reviewing and discussing findings with professional colleagues was
a further way of ensuring that the reality of the participants was adequately reflected in the
findings. Altogether the analysis stage involved constantly checking and rechecking and moving
back and forth between the micro detailed perspective of the data and the macro structure of the
conceptual framework of the study. In this fashion an honest and comprehensive picture of the
phenomenon was built.
Dependability. In the language of Lincoln and Guba (1985), reliability is repositioned as
dependability. In the traditional sense, reliability refers to the extent that research findings from
a particular study can be replicated by other similar studies. Sample sizes in qualitative research
are often smaller than are required to provide a reasonable degree of statistical reliability.
However, Crouch and McKenzie (2006) argue that qualitative research is concerned with
meaning and not making generalised hypothesis statements and that analytic, inductive,
exploratory studies are best done using small samples (p. 496). As argued by Lincoln and Guba
(1985) the more important question becomes one of whether the findings are consistent and
dependable with the data collected. In keeping with this concern, Hammersley (1992) saw

50

dependability as being, “the degree of consistency with which instances are assigned to the same
category by different observers or by the same observer on different occasions (p. 62). In
research methodology this concept is referred to as inter-rater reliability.
With regard to this aspect of research in general, I sought to be consistent and transparent
in the methodologies used. In recognising the dangers of completing the research from a purely
personal perspective, I actively sought input from peers and challenged myself to maintain an
active, open, and reflexive position, in order that the study might benefit from alternative
perspectives. To this end, professional colleagues were asked to code several interviews.
Although coding was generally found to be consistent, and in line with the position that
experience is socially constructed, there were instances where others made different inferences.
In these cases I engaged in discussion with those and other colleagues in an attempt to reconcile
the differences in interpretations.
Confirmability. The concept of confirmability corresponds to the notion of objectivity
in quantitative research. Although a noble quest, objectivity is elusive in all research. The hope
is that the findings are the result of the research, rather than an outcome of the biases and
subjectivity of the researcher. To this end I strived for transparency and honesty in my
methodologies and representations of the collected data.
Transferability. The research design determined that generalizing to a larger population
should not be seen as the intended goal of this study. Instead, by obtaining and honestly
describing, in thick rich detail, both the perceptions of the participants, and the context in which
the study took place, it was hoped that the findings could be considered worthwhile with regard
to their transferability to similar but not identical situations.

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Potential Limitations and Strengths of the Study
This study necessarily contains certain limiting conditions which I recognise. Some of
these limitations are associated with the use of qualitative methodologies in general, others relate
to this study in particular, and still others relate to the fundamental reality of being human.
Limitations, however, do not imply that the research is invalid. It could be argued that all
research has limitations and history reveals that findings that have enjoyed paradigmatic status at
one time may later be overthrown by the findings gained from new improved technologies. In an
attempt to address these issues I identified and addressed areas of possible concern.
Ultimately the structure of any research depends in large part on the personal constructs
of the researcher, developed over time. Subjective involvement in research can lead to biases
that have the potential to influence all aspects of the study from methodologies used to analytical
choices. In this regard, I acknowledge that I have the potential to bring subjectivity and potential
bias to this study, having participated in an AP program both as a curriculum developer and
teacher. Throughout the study I remained committed to ongoing critical self reflection through
journaling developing ideas and dialogue with professional colleagues and advisors. This
process involved constant checking and re-checking of the data gathered against the developing
structure of the research.
The same professional experience, however, has the potential to bring strength to the
study. My experience as a high school teacher allowed me to proceed from an informed,
practical, contextual position, rather than a theoretical position with little contextual support. In
addition to my experiences as a high school teacher, I have a background and training in
guidance and counselling. As such, I bring to the study a human development perspective and
have considered this transition process from the perspective of both cognitive and affective

52

development. For those students involved in this transition from high school to post-secondary
education, development in both the cognitive and affective domains is critical to their success.
In a recent detailed analysis of the AP program (Sadler et al., 2010), there is a distinct absence of
information concerning the importance of development in the affective domain. Instead the
analysis deals specifically with academic indicators attributed to the cognitive domain, such as
grade point average at post-secondary institutions.
Since I have been involved with the AP program in question from its inception, most of
the participants were known to me. In some cases I had taught the students in an AP course,
while in other cases I was known to the participants as a staff member. Because of this
familiarity, I recognise that the responses of the participants may have been affected in their
ability to be objective. In an attempt to co-operate with the researcher they may have offered
responses that they judged to be helpful. On the other hand, it is possible that they might have
responded to the familiarity by offering more guarded responses.
What is critical is that these possible limitations are recognised at all times and
continuous efforts are made to minimize their impact. In recognition of this I took a number of
measures. Initially it was important to acknowledge my position in this research and I
endeavoured for transparency throughout. All aspects of collection, analysis, and synthesis of
data were scrutinized by advisors and peers. To reduce the limitation of potential bias during
data analysis, the names of all participants were removed and all interview transcripts were
coded blindly so as to not associate any material or data with any particular individual. To
address the problem of participant reactivity (Maxwell, 2005, p. 108), I continued to reflect on
how, and in what ways, I might be influencing participants and made a conscious effort to create

53

an environment that was conducive to honest and open dialogue. My experience as an
interviewer and a counsellor, as well as prior research experience, was helpful in this regard.
A further limitation of this study was that the research sample was restricted. Therefore,
a critique of this research might be the limited possibility of generalizing this study to other
groups and programs. This is not a critique of this particular study but one that is levied at
qualitative research in general. The issue of transferability was addressed by obtaining thick,
rich description from the participants as well as details of the context in which the study was
conducted. By giving as detailed and honest a description as possible, it was the hope that the
knowledge presented could be adequately assessed and could lend support to its relevance in
other contexts. I recognise, however, that simply following a set of standards in no way ensures
that the research study is any more rigorous (Morse et al., 2006, p. 6). This responsibility lies
solely with the integrity of myself as the researcher and as such I have remained committed to
the goal of honesty throughout the study.
Finally with respect to the implementation of AP courses in a school setting, there is no
definitive model and not all schools adopt the same model. In Manitoba, articulating AP courses
with current provincial curricula, as well as creating an overall model for the implementation of
AP courses in high school, provides considerable challenge. An example is that the AP exams
occur in the early part of May. This early exam date provides challenges, since the expectations
of the regular provincial curriculum are not anticipated to have been met until the end of the
school year at the end of June. It should be noted then that the experiences of the participants
must be considered in the context of the model adopted in their high school. A more detailed
description of the model is included in the findings to provide contextual support.

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Chapter Summary
This chapter provides a detailed summary of the study’s research methodology.
Operating from a constructivist stance, qualitative case study methodology was employed to
illustrate the phenomenon of whether participation in AP programs at high school allowed for a
smooth transition to post-secondary education. The participant sample was made up of fifteen
purposefully selected individuals. Individual interviews were conducted in person. The data
were reviewed against literature as well as emerging themes. Honest description and integrity in
methodologies were striven for continuously in order to minimize the inherent bias that unique
individual experience brought to the study.
A review of the literature was conducted to devise a conceptual framework to support the
design and analysis of the study. Through iterations of data analysis, involving micro analysis of
emerging themes and macro analysis of their connection to the conceptual framework, key
elements from the findings were identified. Through a comparison with the literature,
interpretations and conclusions were drawn, and recommendations were offered for both
educational practice and further research. The intent was that this study would make a
contribution to the understanding of the transitional process involving high school and postsecondary institutions. Additionally it was hoped that this study would be of value to those
educators and program administrators involved on both sides of this transitional process.

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Findings
The purpose of this case research study was to explore the role of AP courses in the
transition of students from secondary to post-secondary education. The study explored this
phenomenon as seen through the eyes of students who had been involved with these courses and
who were now attending university. Through the perceptions of their experiences the study
attempted to illuminate the factors that may have been instrumental to the students in their
transitional process. On one side of the transition process is the concern over the preparation of
high school students for university, while on the other side of the process there is the concern
over attrition and retention of students at university. Currently there is a large loss of human
capital during this transitional process and the belief was that a richer, detailed understanding of
this transitional process would inform educators on both sides of the transitional bridge. In this
way it was hoped that the findings would enable them to proceed from a more informed position
when considering changes to current models that could encourage more successful transitions to
post-secondary institutions. This chapter presents the key findings obtained from fifteen indepth interviews with current university students. Eight major findings emerged from this study:
1. The overwhelming majority of the participants indicated that they had experienced a
smooth transition to university.
2. The primary reasons for this smooth transition were: familiarity with the course
material, developed study habits, and developed self-efficacy.
3. All of the participants were looking for a more challenging environment when they
chose to take AP courses.
4. There is a general performance recalibration required by students to make the
transition from high school to university. For the participants in this study, this

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recalibration appears to have taken place at high school as a result of their AP
experiences, rather than at university.
5. All of the participants found being in a community where learning was valued to be a
strong motivational force.
6. The overall majority of the participants had a strong future orientation which appears
to have been beneficial to the participants in terms of motivation.
7. Most of the participants felt that the sense of community they had experienced in high
school was lost upon entry to university.
8. The efficacy of the instructor was seen as being critical in creating learning
environments that were beneficial to the participants. In this regard, pedagogical
practices were seen as either helpful or a hindrance.
The following discussion provides details that support and explain each finding. The
discussion attempts to embody the notion that although human experiences are unique, they do
contain common threads. The broad range of experiences of the participants is documented by
way of detailed description using the words of the participants themselves. In this fashion, the
reader is provided with an opportunity to enter the world of the participants and better
understand this phenomenon from their perspective. Illustrative quotations taken from the
interview transcripts attempt to portray multiple participant perspectives and capture some of the
richness and complexity of the subject matter. To protect the identity of the participants,
pseudonyms have been assigned and used consistently throughout.
The Transition to Post-Secondary Education
Introduction. The major finding of this study is that the overwhelming majority of the
participants felt that the preparation they had received in their AP courses had allowed them to

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experience a smooth transition to post-secondary education. Reflecting on the prospect of
entering university without having taken AP courses prompted Linda to say: “I give kudos to
students that could have pulled that off. I think I would have got by, but having AP was just
wonderful and it would have been a very stressful year without it.” There is a sentiment of
gratitude in this statement which is also shown by Beth when she recalled her first year at
university: “at the time I remember being very, very thankful that I did AP programming and it
made that first year a whole lot easier,” and John, who said about his first year at university:
(It was)...easier than I thought it would be because I had this preparation in AP. It just
taxes you so much. That first year in university I did great and I ascribe most of that to
AP. When it came to university I felt I was ready. It didn’t feel like a bad transition at
all.
The transition to university can be an abrupt wrench for some while at the same time
being a smooth process for others. In the following reflection, April gave some sense of how the
AP experience had allowed her to make a smooth transition.
The thing I loved about it now that I can reflect on it going to university, was that it is a
perfect transition, because you know in high school your teachers pretty much hold your
hand, but with AP your teachers are still pushing you and bugging you about your
assignments and studying and they will kind of grill you on it and then you go to
university and the university doesn’t care. Like your professor really doesn’t. (In AP)
you still had that independence where you had to do it yourself, but you still had your
teacher supporting you. You could talk to them. It made the transition much easier. The
thing is though I really missed that when I first went to university. I couldn’t talk to my
professor. I couldn’t discuss anything. So that is something that I really missed and that

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was also a shock, but it wasn’t so much of a transition as it would have been if I had
gone from having my teacher’s hand holding to my profs ignoring me.
April referred to the abrupt change that could have occurred if she had gone to university from a
typical nurturing high school experience. She seemed to see the development of the
independence required for university while still being in a nurturing AP environment as being at
the heart of her successful transition.
Some of the participants talked about the utility of the AP experience in their preparation
for university. Ed said: “(It) is a very useful tool to have. It really does make a difference. I
would encourage anyone who has a glimmer of seriousness in them to try it.” In a similar vein,
Alan felt that, “if you know you are going to university, really it is the only option, because it
will prepare you so much and help you out so much.” According to David, “It was the best
decision I made, because it made me ready for what I am doing now and gave me the confidence.
It was the best!” These comments seem to offer an endorsement of the AP experience in
preparing the students for university.
Uncertainty about university. All of the comments of the participants were based on
their experiences after they have finished at least one year of post-secondary education. From
this reflective position, it appeared as if the transitions were largely successful. Nevertheless,
before the transition, most of the participants were anxious. Leaving the safe and familiar
environment of high school to enter university can lead to anxious moments. Rachel compared
the transition from regular stream courses to AP courses in high school with the transition from
high school to university. She recalled being recalled initially overwhelmed by the university
experience.

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It was a much more new environment than going from regular classes to AP classes in
high school, because you are surrounded by a lot more people and a new style of teaching
with the professor as opposed to a high school teacher.
Ed recalled that he was nervous because the stakes were higher. In his words, he was:
...a little more nervous than in high school because I thought university is really where it
counts. You are trying to earn your degree and what you are going to be doing with the
rest of your life is going to depend on your performance in university.
Feelings of uncertainty are not unusual when one encounters a new environment.
Uncertainty about their new learning environment appeared to dissipate for the participants as
they began to engage with the new course material. Trish recalled that she was a little nervous.
She said:
I wasn’t too sure what to expect until you actually get into it. I didn’t have any thoughts
about whether I was going to be able to do it. It was just how hard it was going to be. I
had a period where I went back to the person I was when I first went into AP, but it is
back now to where it was when I graduated. I was definitely nervous the first few weeks,
but once we got more into the course material and we started actually going through
things I started to realise it was a review of stuff we had done in AP, and that helped
definitely relax me more and made me feel more confident in how I might do in these
courses.
In summary, a period of anxiety appeared to be experienced by the students as they
entered the new environment. This was replaced by a sense of calm as time progressed and
finally, upon reflection about their transitional period at university, there was a general feeling
that the AP experience was most beneficial.

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At this point the discussion will examine the three primary reasons that appeared to be
instrumental in making a smooth transition: familiarity with course material, study habits, and
personal belief systems. The first two of these were indicated by David in his reflection on the
value of AP preparation. He felt that it was:
the course material plus the habits. I’d say the habits are more important. It’s more the
habits that you are going to develop in those courses than the actual material itself. If you
end up going into the courses (at university) that you took (in AP) then that is wonderful.
Then you have the best of both worlds, but the habits are the most important.
In addition to familiarity with the course material and personal study habits, a third benefit of AP
programming appeared to be the development of an inner strength and confidence gained
through the AP experience.
Familiarity with course material. One of the main reasons for the smooth transition
appeared to be that, for the most part, the participants felt they had already been exposed to the
content and assessment style that they encountered at university. All of the participants felt that
the prior knowledge gained from their AP courses was instrumental in facilitating a smooth
transition. In this regard, many of the participants expressed the value of their AP notes in the
transition. Trish said: “Yeah I still have all my AP notes, which are still relevant, both first and
second semester”. Paula echoed this when she said: “I used my AP notes a lot, and I still do.
Like for MCAT prep and when I tutor high school students, I still refer back to my AP notes.”
This prior knowledge of their courses appeared to provide a level of comfort in the face
of many new challenges. Paula recalled: “It is comforting that you know this material and now
you are in university and are doing okay.” Susan found the same comfort. She recalled:

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The funny thing is that I think it was the classes that comforted me the most during my
first weeks of university, because everything was new to me. But the classes, like the
content the teachers were talking about, I was totally okay with it, because I had covered
it before and I didn’t have to worry about it and I could worry about other things. I was
sitting in class and the teacher would be like talking about something and I would be like
I learned that already.
In addition to the comfortable feeling of having seen the material before, most of the
participants felt that this prior knowledge made things easier for them. David recalled: “I
thought it was really quite easy because I had done it all before, for the most part.” Other
participants expressed the same sentiment:
First year was a cake walk. There was no way in first year chemistry that I would have
done anywhere near as well if I hadn’t done AP Chemistry. I think in terms of chemistry,
it was almost based purely on AP material, but there was other material that you went
into at university. It definitely helped having seen the material before. (Alan)
The following participant talks about the idea that their prior knowledge allowed them to
achieve a balance in their studying while dealing with the large amount material that they were
encountering.
Having a basis on the content definitely allowed you to be more efficient in your
studying. Basically it allowed you to know what you knew and what you didn’t or what
you had some doubts on. Just being able to study is one thing that is really useful from
AP. (Brian)
In a few instances, having prior knowledge appeared to have two potential negative
consequences. In the first place, some participants talked of the possibility of becoming bored

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since they had seen the material before. When asked about the benefit of having taken the
material before, Ed recalled: “I took it the wrong way in chemistry, because I told myself that I
didn’t have to worry about it. Then I realised that if I had heard of it before, then it was a good
review.” It seemed that for Ed the prior knowledge created a complacency that was not helpful.
Since the university course could be substantially a review of material taken in an AP course,
there was the possibility that boredom could be a consequence. Rachel said:
It was a little bit boring at times because you are sitting there and you have already seen
this material before. You know all the basic facts. I thought it would be more material
than what we covered in AP but it turned out that for biology, for example, it was all the
same.
Balanced against the fact that the review could prove to be boring for some, it could also prove
to be beneficial to others. Beth described the benefit of the review in this way:
It is really nice to learn things the second time in college. You’ve learned university
level biology in high school and then you cover it again and you have a whole new
understanding of it. It is so much easier.
The second negative consequence could be encountered if the participant elected to skip
the university course, take the credit, and gain advanced standing. A few students opted to take
the university credit in certain courses to advance their standing and in the process they would
have missed this review. Colin recalled: “I didn’t actually take Calculus 1 (at university). I took
my AP credit as an A and then took Calculus 2. I should have taken Calculus 1 as a recap!” In
this case, it appears that the potential for boredom may not be as disadvantageous as missing the
opportunity for a good review of material.

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Study habits. The development and possession of a good set of study habits also
appeared to be critical to successful transitions. All of the participants pointed to the importance
of this aspect. Alan reflected that AP courses weren’t just about content. He said: “It’s
developing more your habits that you get into. I mean course material is a big thing...but
developing habits and the mindset that I want to do this is also important.” Brian expressed his
understanding of the importance of study skills in the following way: “By the second year for
sure I was definitely very thankful for the fact that I knew how to study as compared to other
students that I saw.” The combination of prior knowledge, developed study skills, and personal
habits appeared to provide a solid platform on which to begin university. Mary and Carol
reflected on this in the following manner:
Seriously, the first year of university I basically didn’t have to study because I knew the
material already and I actually thought university was so much easier than AP courses. I
think the AP course really just taught me how to study, taught me how to organise
myself, and then when the time came to call upon these qualities I had them all and I was
able to do it at University, whereas everyone else who hadn’t had this course they were
struggling so much. (Mary)
The stuff I learned in AP applies to all my classes. Even the stuff I haven’t taken before,
there’s a general knowledge I learned in AP or skills I learned in AP and I can apply it to
those classes. (Carol)
As a general skill, time management was considered by almost all of the participants to
be one of the most important. In the face of a battery of new courses, each with a lot of
information, it was helpful to know how to manage one’s time. Concerning time management,
participants said:

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Other students are learning to study with a heavier course load too. At least with high
school I had my AP courses and I had other courses where, I don’t want to say, but they
are slacker courses, and I kind of breezed my way through them and could focus more on
my AP courses, whereas in university you kind of need to focus on all your courses. You
had to allot a certain amount of time for each. AP helped me in that as well because I had
to schedule out my study time and in university I had to do that too. (Trish)
I think if I hadn’t taken AP I wouldn’t know how to balance out my life. I would be the
person in the library studying 24/7; no social life for sure. I don’t think I would have
much confidence if I hadn’t taken AP. As a person it definitely helped me. (Trish)
David reflected that it was not until his participation in AP courses that he actually
learned to study.
I started to learn to study (in AP courses) and that was important. It was a process I am
still getting better at, but I am a lot better than I was say in Grade 10. (AP) gave me a
two year head start on learning how to study.
Meanwhile only two participants indicated that they had not learned very good study
skills during high school. David stated: “Yeah I didn’t know how to study at all. This year I am
going to look into it a bit better. There are actually things on campus that will teach you how
and I did not know that last year.” In this case it appeared that the capacity or skill to ask for
help had not been developed. David elaborated on this:
Well I wasn’t big into going for help in high school. It was a pride issue that I had to get
over and I got over it by the time I was in second year here and now I am willing to go
and talk to professors all the time.
David was not alone in this as is evident from what Beth had to say.

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I think the best thing I have learned in college is to go for help and what AP taught me is
that I am no longer too proud to ask for help. The biggest lesson they should teach
people is not to be too proud to ask for help!
The primary skills mentioned by the participants as being helpful included writing skills,
test taking skills, and lab skills. All were seen as important. The participants talked about these
in the following ways:
Writing skills.
After thirty minute essays in English you can go and write whatever. I can write things
much faster than other people at university. (Carol)
The writing that I did in AP was probably the reason why I passed my first couple of
(physics labs). I had a professor who doesn’t like things going on too much. I was glad I
knew that skill before I started doing those. (David)
Test taking skills.
I have gotten really good at multiple choice questions. First year classes are all multiple
choice. It’s (a large provincial university) right. Like there are five hundred students in
your class and (they) don’t have time to mark everyone’s long answers, so everybody
has multiple choice questions and I did a lot of multiple choice in high school. Like I was
really good at multiple choice. (Susan)
Lab skills.
Well we did some pretty tough labs (in AP) so it raises your confidence...our (university)
labs were easier because we did labs in high school that were essentially first year
university labs. (David)

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That’s another thing with AP. The lab part of it really helped, because some people come
into university having no lab experience at all. With AP we actually got exposure to that
and so we kind of knew what we were doing. (Trish)
Self-efficacy and resilience from past experience. Almost all of the participants
expressed an inner resolve which allowed them to handle the challenges that they encountered at
university. Often these challenges at university came in the form of tests and exams as well as
the new learning environments. Experiences gained in high school appeared to be beneficial.
Knowing that they had already prepared for, and successfully navigated, difficult AP tests
seemed to provide comfort to the participants their new environment.
I gained confidence going into tests, because the first time you walk into AP tests it is
something completely different. By the time you are out of them they aren’t that bad. By
the time you have done three or four of them they don’t feel too bad and you’ll never
write a more intense test in university, I found. You will write hard tests but you will
always have the confidence going into them. (David)
Come mid-terms and finals it’s definitely helpful. In my first year I had three finals on
the same day, so being able to study and manage your time is valuable. (Brian)
In Susan’s case, adversity came in the form of marks that were less than she expected.
This was not an isolated instance as most students appeared to face the challenge of receiving
marks that were less than they had been used to getting in high school. Paula recalled: “...you do
see those kids that get fifty per cent on the exam and they are gone out of university, because it is
devastating when you get these marks!” Ed expressed his feeling of confidence about tests when
he said: “I could see a lot of nervous people but I was a lot more relaxed, because I could say I
had been exposed to the material before, and I could handle it.” Again the experience gained in

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AP appears to have prepared them for this challenge. David expressed it this way: “...and even
though there are still some courses here that destroy everybody, they don’t destroy me as bad as
they destroy other people.” Other recollections elaborated on this picture:
You know what? My little brother went through that this year. Here (at university) he got
sixty percents. Like he had gotten “A” pluses in everything in high school and this just
shocked him! It shook me up in high school in AP when I would get those marks, but I
was more prepared in university, which is another benefit of the (AP) programme. You
know, I would see other students go home in tears here at university over these marks.
Like it is disappointing, but that is part of university to see if you can bounce back and
keep going. (Paula)
Usually I will just work through it (low marks) and I think that is what comes from AP. I
remember getting 75’s in AP and I would be like, “Okay what did I do wrong?” and then
I would try and fix it and try again. (Colin)
Unanticipated events at university such as faculty strikes add additional stress to the
students. Here again, a strong inner resolve developed through the AP experience was
beneficial. Alan recalled the unpleasant feelings he had after a strike during his time at
university:
...losing three weeks and then having all the professors the day after the strike saying,
“Okay we lost three weeks and now we have to make everything up!” and you are sitting
there saying, “I don’t want to be here!” but you know you can do it because you’ve done
so much in the past that you know you can do this. (Alan)
In regard to how the participants felt about the various challenges, there was a unanimous
agreement on the benefit of their AP experiences. Rachel expressed that: “AP has made me

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more comfortable about aiming higher. I don’t know if I would have chosen dentistry if I hadn’t
taken AP. It has definitely made me more confident that I can handle whatever comes next.” Ed
said: “Like when you are going from a small class size to a large university class it definitely
helps if you are feeling like you can already handle the course work and you know what is
expected.” These sentiments were echoed by the following participant as she reflected on her
AP preparation:
I am so happy. I really am. You have no idea. I honestly feel confident about what I can
do. I don’t feel scared about it. I really don’t. I really feel well prepared. I didn’t get
that slap in the face (at university). I got it in AP, but I am done with it. AP was free and
my GPA is not going to kill me. (April)
April’s statements indicate another dimension to this set of findings. Inherent in her
reflection is the notion that life lessons learned at university can be expensive in two ways; in
monetary terms as well as in terms of the impact on the student’s grade point average (GPA).
She went on to provide a particular example of this cost when she said:
I was talking to someone else and his first year was terrible. Like he almost landed up on
academic probation, but he realised what he had to do and he was a smart kid and in the
following years he ended up getting high marks but he was rejected for law school
because his GPA was damaged. This is his second year of applying and I don’t know if
he got in. It is sad.
Ed seemed to confirm what April felt when he reflected on what he saw as the value of his AP
experience.
I think I would still be at university but I wouldn’t be philosophically as developed and
my GPA would be down a bit. I would just be a year or two behind in terms of growth

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and development. You get the learning experience. Like this is what a university course
is going to look like. It is still going to be tougher because of the pace, but you get some
idea of what is coming at you. Why would you pay money for that and also pay in terms
of your GPA. (Ed)
Throughout the discussion so far we can see that some of the feedback that the
participants received was based on their own experiences. We can also sense another source of
feedback, which was based on the observations of the participants of how well others were
doing. Confirmation of their own preparation was obtained partly by discussion with, and
observation of other students. The following section details these findings.
The transitions of others. At the same time that the participants were experiencing a
smooth transition, it was apparent to them that others weren’t. In connection with other students
who had not had AP, Beth said: “they generally seemed unprepared for (university) life, at least
the work anyway.” Comparisons made by other participants pointed in the same direction:
I think a lot of them don’t know how to study. A few of them that I talked to, they just
didn’t know how to study. Like they would just read the textbook or something and
you can’t just do that. There are other things you need to do as well. (Trish)
I don’t think they were (ready for university). I don’t know what they thought, but I
think high school and university are completely different. You have to change everything
about yourself if you want to do well. Like, studying is completely different and I think
if you didn’t take AP you would be completely lost. (Susan)
Lab skills have already been mentioned as being important. Deficits in these lab skills
were observed by the participants and were felt to be the biggest struggle for a lot of students.
Some of their observations included:

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The class numbers dropped within the first few weeks. I think the biggest struggle was
the lab component. For a lot of classes you need to be prepared before you come to lab
and you are on your own. I think that was a big shock for most students. (Linda)
AP Chemistry helped a lot with my knowledge of how to use equipment. There were
students that came from smaller schools and one person set up their burette upside
down and couldn’t figure it out. (April)
Simply taking an AP science course, however, did not appear to guarantee adequate lab skills.
Participants observed other AP students who also seemed to be lacking lab skills. April reflected
on this:
There were actually a couple of students who had done AP but who had had no lab
experience and they were completely lost. Like one AP student had done no labs. So
(their AP course) wasn’t properly executed...and they actually didn’t have any of the
equipment. She ended up not understanding that cooling a thermometer makes it brittle
and she ended up breaking it because of a lack of experience.
One of the most common observations of the participants was that, while they were wary
of what was to come at university, they saw many students who had great optimism. This sense
of confidence was based upon high school experiences and appears to have been problematic as
indicated in the following sequence of reflections.
Yeah they were just super happy and confident going into it and the AP students knew
what they were in for. Like, they didn’t start off the year partying all the time! (April)
Yes they would strut right in there and then all of a sudden you would see them and they
would look a little green in the face a few days later and they didn’t come back. They
dropped classes or dropped the whole thing. (Ed)

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Possible insights into this unrealistic view of university are provided by these comments.
They paint a picture of false expectations based upon experiences with limited challenge and
rigor.
Like in high school there is really only one hard test you have to take if you don’t take
AP and that would be Grade 12 Pre-Calc, and that’s not really hard. (David)
In middle school we were told that high school was going to be much harder and when
we got there it wasn’t, so I think a lot of people thought that it was going to be the same
thing going from school to university. You had been told this is going to be harder and
different kids would be going, “Yeah, you told me that before and it wasn’t!” So people
go into university for the first time and unfortunately it is different. (Alan)
A final reflection in this regard made by Mary should perhaps cause concern for the stakeholders
in the transition of students from high school to university. She stated:
I think our (Manitoban) curriculum is not really strong enough to prepare our students for
university. I think these AP courses are like a stepping stone to university, and I think it
does a lot for the kids.
Difficulties appeared to emerge for the students when their perception of university came
face to face with the harsh reality of the new environment. All participants witnessed large rates
of attrition.
Most of them end up dropping after the first mid-term. The class goes down by thirty per
cent. So you walk in the day after mid-term and all of a sudden there are whole sections
empty. (Alan)

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A lot of people on my dorm floor ended up failing mid-terms, exams, courses, and at
that point they were considering not going to university anymore, even at the first midterm, because they couldn’t deal with failure. (April)
I have seen a lot of people drop their classes. Usually the teacher says a lot of people
drop after first mid-term. They mark on a curve and at least my chemistry teacher would
show us how many people got what score and I was usually at the top of the curve. I
would always be surprised at the amount of people that weren’t there, because after I took
the test, I would think it was pretty easy because I had done it before. I would always
walk out and think I hadn’t done that well because there were always a few questions I
wouldn’t get and I always assumed that I had to get one hundred to do really well and
then when we got the results back it showed half the class was failing, like literally fifty
per cent! (David)
As well as students who dropped out, participants observed others that struggled through
and made the transition, but not without consequence. In connection with this, April said:
They just work harder and they make it through. It’s hard for them. The first year is an
adjustment period for them and it’s sad because their GPA gets lowered. If they had
taken AP in high school they would have been done that and their GPA would have been
higher in their first year and your GPA follows you. So if you bomb your first year but
you learn what to do or you have learned to study then you could get all “A” pluses the
next year, but that average is still a “C” and it haunts you. (April)
All of the participants felt that they had been well prepared in comparison to many of the
students they saw. At the same time that this picture was unfolding, Trish felt: “I had the

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advantage kind of. (I felt) that I had prepared myself for it beforehand, and so it was easier for
me.” Similarly, Paula said:
I was feeling comfortable in the physics classroom and I guess you realise the more you
are exposed to the material the more comfortable you get, because I am a strong believer
that everyone has the same potential and it’s just how much work you are putting into it.
Unfortunately AP courses may not be available for many students. The following participants
raised this concern about the availability of AP courses.
I pretty much think if anyone is looking at university it should be offered in all schools.
My friend went to a small school out in southern Manitoba and she never had AP
although she was a very good student. She said the transition was tough. I asked her
why there wasn’t AP. I couldn’t fathom going through high school now without taking
it. (David)
I have (a) friend who came from a very small town and he was wondering how I got
through my first year so easily compared to where he struggled. He still got really good
marks but struggled through it. (Trish)
The final reflection looks at the notion that the rigor that AP students had been exposed to
at high school was being experienced for the first time in university by other students. Paula
responded to the idea of the benefit of encountering rigor at high school. She said:
It would be interesting to see what would happen to kids that go through first year
physics and then retake it, because I feel that would essentially be the same as if you had
taken AP right? You’ve been exposed to it and then you go through it again.
Unfortunately, as we have seen in this section of the findings, experiencing challenge for the first
time in university without prior preparation can have negative consequences.

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The Decision to Enrol in AP Courses
Introduction. The decision to take AP courses is multi-faceted as is shown by the
thoughts of the following participant.
I think one of the reasons was that I wanted to be with other students who were serious
about their academics. That was one of the reasons. As well, my parents expected it of
me when they saw that there was an AP program in high school, and also it was my own
personal decision. I thought I might like it. It would be challenging. There would be
smaller classes. That would have been a good benefit as well. (Susan)
Sources of information in the decision process.
School as an information source. The information provided by the school, through
counsellors and teachers, was found by the majority of the participants to be important. Mary
recalled: “[It was] an opportunity presented at school. The counsellors made a pretty good effort
in educating the students in their Grade 10 year about the program.” Meanwhile, Linda stated: “I
had heard from the teachers that it was quite similar to the first year of university.” Alan also
remembered the emphasis on the courses providing a preparation for university.
They had an information session and the big emphasis I remember was that they kept
saying this is equivalent to a university course and it is more self-directed learning and
this kind of stuff. I’ve known for a while that I was going into university and I think
knowing that I would have a background in that kind of learning I thought it would be
good to go into those courses.
In addition to the school presentations and information from teachers, school counsellors
provided information on how the AP program could work for a student. Alan recalled visiting a
school counsellor:

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So I went in and talked with the counsellor, because I was debating going down this
science road or this computing road. I got advice from her and then mum and I went
home and discussed it with dad. (Alan)
Family as an information source. Messages from family members also seemed to be
important in the decision to take AP courses. In one form or another, parents were influential in
all cases, either because they had attended the school information sessions, or they had previous
knowledge, or they were simply being supportive of their child. The reflections of some of the
participants illustrate this.
My parents went to the meeting but I didn’t. They said I should probably take it (and)
that I would be around a lot of students who valued their grades, so it would be good for
me. (Susan)
I wanted a more challenging program, but also from my dad I knew for university that
you needed to be able to work independently. (Paula)
Both of my parents are in the health care field and so from a younger age I always had
this goal of going in to medicine. (Linda)
There was a little bit of discussion with my parents, but mostly it was my own decision.
My parents told me to do well in school, but they never actually pushed me at all. (Trish)
Siblings are another source of family message. One participant described how she had
been influenced by her sister: “My sister was having a difficult time at another university and I
thought I would have a better chance at succeeding at university [by taking AP]” (Mary). Other
participants describe the influence of their siblings in the process.
My older brother had taken some AP courses and so I got a lot of feedback from him and
my parents were very involved with education as well, so they got feedback from him

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and then decided that it would be a good option for me. We all sat around and talked
about it. (Paula).
If you really don’t know how it is going to be it would be more difficult to decide. I
already knew I was going to do it, but it was more comforting to know someone that had
already taken it and has benefitted from it. (Carol)
Peers as an information source. Peer groups were mentioned by the majority of
participants as being important in their decision to take AP courses. As John recalled:
I probably would have been so much more nervous if none of my friends took it and it
was just me by myself, but the fact that they were going into it, it was kind of like, if they
can do it I can do it. (April)
Well my friends were taking it, but I would have taken it without them because I even
took it in a different order than them, so I was never really in their classes anyway (Carol)
Self-efficacy beliefs and critical incidents as information sources. Self-efficacy beliefs
and critical incidents were also expressed by the majority of participants as being important.
Concerning self-efficacy beliefs, Linda stated: “You know my grades throughout 9 and 10 and
even, you know, 8, had been very high and I felt it would be nice to have a challenge in school
and see where I might go with that,” and April stated: “You have to take your general sciences
first, but me and all my friends did quite well in Grade 8. After Grade 9 it became clear that the
basic courses wouldn’t be challenging enough.” The influence of critical incidents is revealed in
this statement by Mary: “I had made the decision to go into medical school at a young age
because of a traumatic incident in Grade 8 when my best friend died of cystic fibrosis.”
Challenge as a deciding factor. The notion of challenge is present in both of the
previous reflections concerning self-efficacy. Indeed, the decision to take AP centered on the

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idea of challenge for all of the participants. They expressed that they were looking for a
challenge in their high school years. When asked if it bothered her that AP courses might be
tough, Carol replied: “No. That’s why I wanted it, because it was going to be tougher.”
Similarly, Trish said: “It was an opportunity to challenge myself more and see how I fare
academically.” Ed saw it this way: “It didn’t intimidate me. I took it as a challenge. I looked at
it and (told myself) that there was no reason why I shouldn’t be capable of this. Sure it is a
university course, but I will be a university student one day.” For Beth, the search for a
challenge had been with her for a long time. When asked why she chose to take AP courses, she
said:
AP seemed like the most challenging program in high school. I can’t remember a time
when I didn’t want that challenge. I had always been frustrated by the level of teaching.
Where I grew up we didn’t have a lot of opportunity for stuff, but I was always looking
for more. I planned my entire high school course selection around AP. That was why I
was able to do five.
In her statement we can see the importance to Beth of the challenge provided by AP
courses. This same sentiment was expressed by other participants in the following ways:
At the time I was ready to accept the challenge because of how easy everything was
before. I think accepting that challenge was what made it fun. I mean, looking back at
the AP courses, they made high school for me, because of how much fun they were. I
know that’s not going to be the same for a lot of people because they go to school for a
lot of different reasons, but AP was what made high school for me. (Alan)
I really wanted to take it, because I remember my friends were taking it and I had taken
regular classes before and I had taken an advanced science class in Grade 10 and I liked

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the atmosphere of the classroom a lot better than science in Grade 9. Grade 9 Science
was very easy for me and other students didn’t seem very interested in learning. Everybody
really wanted to learn and it was really difficult to get a good grade in that class. I felt
challenged. I felt that it was good for me and I wasn’t bored. (Susan)
Challenge as preparation for university. April captured the sentiment of most of the
participants when she said: “I was already thinking about going to university even though I
wasn’t sure what I wanted to do.” Others knew the direction in which they were heading. Paula
stated: “I had always been headed in the sciences direction and this was the best way to go
because I wanted to be really prepared for university.” There was a sense of future benefit in the
words of Carol when she said: “I knew that they were advanced courses and I also knew that
they would help me in later life.” Other participants had the same feeling and their comments
which follow provide a more detailed look at this aspect of the decision making process.
I felt that AP courses would be a good preparation for university. I knew I was heading
towards a career in science which is why AP was more appealing as well to get a good
background in science in high school. My brother’s feedback was that it was more
independent work. Instructors kind of pushed you to go for your best. It was higher
expectations in the classroom and a more mature environment and he had a good
experience in first year university as well after taking calculus and stuff. (Paula)
I am not trying to be arrogant, but I was always more capable of doing the harder stuff so
I thought why don’t I keep challenging myself. The challenge in my regular courses
was kind of hit and miss and I thought when I got into the senior grades it was kind of
my chance to hit it home to university and really show that I am serious, and so I
thought AP would be a perfect way to go. (Ed)

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Lack of challenge as a deciding factor. Many of the participants did not feel challenged
by their high school programs up to the point that they took AP courses. Carol was fairly blunt
as she said: “I found things too easy in my other classes. You didn’t really have to do anything
and that bothered me.” John described it this way: “I always felt in regular stream courses that
you could just get by going to class. You know, it was a very base level for all students and it
was difficult to go above and beyond that.” Trish showed two dimensions of this decision when
she said: “I wanted the challenge and also being in those classes where I felt that I wasn’t
accomplishing much pushed me towards trying to do something harder.” This bi-directional
motivation of moving away from courses that were felt to be too easy and towards courses that
could provide a greater challenge was expressed by many of the participants. An example is
provided by Mary in the following reflection.
To be quite honest, when I was going through high school I thought most of the courses
were quite easy and I just needed something to push me forward and I wanted to
challenge myself more and I thought AP courses just gave me the opportunity to do that.
The key finding in this section is that the participants were looking for a challenge when
they chose AP courses. Their search for challenge seemed to be fuelled either by their
perception of a lack of challenge in their regular courses, or because they wanted to challenge
themselves in preparation for university.
Classroom dynamics as a deciding factor.
Motivation away from frustration and feelings of discomfort. For some of the
participants, the motivation to take AP courses originated from the sense of frustration and the
degree of discomfort that they had experienced in some of their learning environments. Beth
described it in this way:

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It was a really bad atmosphere to try and learn in. Like there was no-one that you could
do homework with and was interested in the same things you are. It’s not like a healthy
learning environment. I feel like if I had stayed in those classes and actually been
engaged I probably would have been made fun of. In Grade 9 Science if I knew the
answers I wouldn’t say them because I didn’t want to be exposed, but in AP if I didn’t
say the answers it was a bad thing.
Other participants had similar feelings of discomfort. Details of the origin of this discomfort can
be seen in these reflections.
In regular classes I felt completely out of place. If you actually tried to push towards
reaching a goal and the rest of the class were kind of staggering behind not really caring.
It kind of put you out of place. (Paula)
It’s hard when you have a class where there are a few students who are always a
distraction or who are always causing trouble. It just takes away from the learning
experience. Compared to where in AP you never got that. Maybe in the first part there
was a little bit, but towards the end everyone was working towards the same goal. (Trish)
Motivation toward like-minded individuals who value learning. Perhaps stemming from
the frustrations previously expressed, there was a motivation to be involved with a group of like
minded individuals who cared about learning. John expressed it in this way: “I think the main
thing was I thought I would get along better with people who also focus more on learning and
information and things like that in AP.” David stated:
I liked being around people who liked school and liked learning and weren’t in school for
a social experience so much as trying to learn. It was a bit of help with self esteem

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because I was able to get with people that were more like me and it was a healthy
environment and no one was attacking each other.
The key findings in this section confirm that the decision to take AP courses is
multifaceted. Factors both extrinsic and intrinsic to the participants were important in the
decision making process. Extrinsic factors included school information, family and peer
information, and classroom dynamics. Intrinsic factors included various dimensions of
motivation. The desire for challenge and preparation for university as well as wanting to reduce
frustrations and be with like-minded students were dimensions of this motivation.
Important Things Learned from the AP Experience
Introduction. The decision to attempt AP courses marked the start of a significant
transition period for the participants. During their time spent in these courses they were
confronted with challenges that provided them with an opportunity to develop skill sets that
could prove useful beyond high school. Ed described a general complacency that many of the
participants had upon entry into AP courses. He talked about becoming active in class as
opposed to being passive. In his AP classes he said that he was: “listening and actually reflecting
on what I was listening to and not just being there. I learned the difference between being in
class and actually listening in class. Just because you are there doesn’t mean you are listening.”
This next section looks at some of the significant challenges that were faced by the
participants and the learning associated with those challenges
Handling the work load. All of the participants felt that there was a significant increase
in the amount of work required for AP courses over that required in their regular courses. It was
quite a shock as is shown by the reflections of these two participants:

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Being confronted with this massive tsunami of school work kind of wakes you right up
and you learn pretty quickly how to cope with a whole bunch of work. Studying for tests
I doubled my effort over what I would have done in regular stream classes. I had to in
order to get through all that material. (Ed)
I felt I had more homework time. Like after school I had more homework to do than in
regular course. In regular courses there was more time between assignments but in AP it
was a bit more often. There was more information to absorb. (Rachel)
There appeared to be little resentment over this increased demand. Instead, many of the
participants welcomed the wakeup call, which seemed to correspond to their desire for a greater
challenge in their courses. Concerning this aspect, Carol said: “I appreciated getting homework.
Those were the only classes that I got homework in, pretty much.” The increased amount of
work seems to have encouraged the participants to develop study habits. Many of the
participants talked about how they began to make organisational and time management decisions
to handle the work.
I did a lot more studying. I definitely put a lot more effort into my homework. I actually
scheduled myself hours to do homework, whereas before I would just kind of leave it to
whenever. (Trish)
I think it helped my responsibility and the biggest thing is that it helped my priorities. It
really helped me get my priorities straight and my organisational skills. I honestly
believe if I took normal courses I would not have my priorities straight. Everything was
handed to you. It was too easy. (April)
At the end of their journey the participants felt that this need to develop these basic time
management skills was of benefit to them. As Rachel stated: “I just felt that I knew how to

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manage my study time, when to do it and when not to feel stressed out, when to take a break, and
that sort of thing.” Similarly Alan stated: “You start to develop good habits early. It’s better to
develop good habits there (in high school) and have them, than to have to develop them again or
for the first time when you go to university.”
Recalibration of abilities. In addition to having to recalibrate their work rates, the
participants also engaged in a reassessment of their abilities in this new environment. Abilities
based on past performances appear to have been tested as was recalled by the following
participant.
I was kind of arrogant based on Grade 9 and 10 Sciences where I didn’t study and
didn’t do any homework and I still got nineties pretty much on everything. That changed
a lot when I went into AP. I think there was a first test where the material just got a lot
harder and I didn’t study and I think I got an “81” and it was terrible. At that point it
motivated me to work harder. (Brian)
The previous statement appears to illustrate an attitude towards marks that was somewhat
unrealistic and ambiguous. The following statements made by the participants provide an
interesting comparison.
The best thing I learned from AP honestly was to actually accept failure. Like I was so
scared of failure the entire time but that’s not the point. The point is not to get one
hundred per cent. It’s to prepare you for university. (April)
That was actually one of the main things I learned, is not to get hung up on the numbers.
If you worry too much about the outcome you aren’t in the present moment enough to do
what you need to do to get a good outcome. (Ed)
There appears to be a greater sense of reality and growing maturity in these later comments.

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This process of maturing into an independent learner can be facilitated by experiences in
the classroom. In this regard, the participants encountered an increased expectation from their
teachers which was also cause for concern. Alan recalled a somewhat shocking lesson in
independence in one of his classes.
That was a big a shock because that was the first time in school where someone said,
“This is what you have to know, but I’m not going to teach it to you, you do it yourself.”
That was kind of a wakeup. “Ooh, I actually have to work now!” sort of thing. So that
was the biggest shock out of all of them. It was the initial, “So I am responsible for doing
this so I had better do it!” I think having that at a younger age when it doesn’t
necessarily matter is good, because it actually whipped you into shape, so that when you
do get to the point where it actually matters and you are paying money for the course and
you need to pass it, you have the background.
Developing self-efficacy. The following reflection made by Trish appears to be
paradoxical. “I knew I was a good student, but I didn’t really have the confidence in my
academic abilities at that point.” We are left wondering about the source of the doubt given that
she feels she is a good student. In a previous comment April mentioned a similar doubt because
she had not really been challenged before AP. Through the process of engagement with the AP
courses, however, the majority of the participants spoke of a developing confidence that they
were feeling. Compare the previous statement by Trish to this one. Here she reflected on the
impact of AP courses on her self-belief system. She said:
It made me feel like the effort I was putting in was paying off, which is always a good
feeling. I definitely started to believe in myself academically more. I felt more confident
in my abilities. I noticed my writing was getting better. Like doing the biology essays

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was helping me in English and at that point I wasn’t in AP English, I was just in regular
English and AP was helping me a lot, and just my skills I was learning from my AP
courses were transferring to other courses as well.
Other participants also recognised that they were developing skills and as a result they also
noticed a growing sense of confidence. Here is what April said:
I felt like I was actually developing something. I was learning something. I could feel
and I could notice that my capacity to memorize something, to learn something, and to
understand something was growing so much. I did get the sense that it was my personal
achievement and I felt good about it. The fact that I was getting through it and doing
well at it just made me want to work harder. I got a little bit of confidence. It was pretty
cool though because I noticed I started helping other people too in normal classes. I felt
more confident in what I knew. Like before I took AP I could never have done it. Like I
knew my stuff, but I was too shy about it. Taking AP gave me the confidence.
Many of the themes in this section of the findings are included in the following reflection made
by Susan.
At first I was unsure because I knew this was going to be a real test of my abilities. It
wasn’t going to be like in Grade 3 where if you tried hard you got a good grade. I
knew this was going to be if you are actually intelligent you are going to do well. If you
don’t try hard then you don’t. I thought it was going to be tough. I honestly wasn’t very
confident in myself at that point, because I realised I never really had been pushed before.
I didn’t know how well I could do. I didn’t know how much I could handle. After
awhile I definitely felt I was getting stronger. My study skills definitely got better.
Especially with time management, taking multiple choice tests, doing practice questions,

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how I study, reading. Basically my study skills got a lot better. Before (taking AP) I had
never felt pressured for time. I always felt that I had a lot of time, but then when I took
AP I had to manage my time.
There were two key findings in this section. In the first place, the workload and rigor of
the AP courses required the participants to recalibrate the effort that was required in order to be
successful. During this process of recalibration, important time management skills were
developed. Secondly, initial doubts about abilities seem to have been replaced by a growing
sense of self belief.
The Logistics of Taking AP
The decision to take AP courses involves some planning by the students. In the model of
delivery adopted by the high school in question, each AP subject involved taking three courses in
Grades 11 and 12 rather than just two as in regular programming. Taking one AP course,
therefore, meant the loss of a timetable slot in which another course could be taken. Most of the
participants took a number of AP courses. The minimum number taken was two and the
maximum number taken was five. The following set of findings looks at some of the practical
considerations of taking AP courses in this particular setting.
The transition from regular stream programming to AP. The decision to take AP
courses occurs for many in Grade 10. In science and math for example, the students in this high
school complete their required Grade 9 and 10 credits by the end of the first semester in Grade
10. The first of their three AP courses in a particular subject would then be taken in the second
half of Grade 10. Already in the first half of Grade 10, science students have elected to take an
advanced or regular science course. Typically those who choose the advanced stream move on
into AP courses, but this is not always the case. In this fashion the students begin to pick up the

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pace before they move into their AP courses. The participants described the transition in the
following ways:
It kind of integrated in. Like you have the Grade 10 first part of the year and then you go
in to AP. They do it well so that it is gradual. I liked it. I didn’t think it was a huge jump
up from regular. The workload was about what they described. It wasn’t ridiculous at all
but it was more rigorous. Looking back I don’t know that I was ever worried. If
anything I expected it to be more challenging. (Beth)
There was a huge difference. Just the course load and homework was a lot heavier.
There was an increase in the amount of effort you had to put into the class to get out of it
what you want. (Trish)
Responses to the transition were varied. In general, the students found the courses to be easier
than they had anticipated. At the same time, however, most of the participants recognised that
there was an increase in rigor in the courses and required more effort on their part.
Programming the courses. An uncertainty about how many courses to take, in
combination with simple programming miscalculations led some participants to reflect that they
had perhaps given themselves an overloaded timetable in high school. Most students who
attempt to take four or five AP courses try and split them so that they can finish two in Grade 11
and then the rest are finished in Grade 12. In Ed’s case he ended up finishing four AP courses in
Grade 12. At a later point he wondered if he needed to do all of the courses. He said: “When I
got to university and I got that frame of reference, it made me think that I didn’t need to do all of
them. I should have chosen three maybe.” Finishing four AP courses in Grade 12 presented Ed
with two problems. Initially there was the large workload involved, and secondly the exam

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schedule meant he had to sit all four exams over a two day period. His reflections on this
situation were:
The workload was challenging. I would recommend not taking all of the AP’s at once.
That’s what I did and I found the workload to be quite a bit. In individual courses I found
it to be pretty fair, but when you combine them it can be too much. It was too much all at
once because the APs got crammed into two days, so I had to do two a day back to back.
By the second day I couldn’t care. To me what mattered the most was the course more
than the exam. Like the exam could give me a university credit, but I realised as I took
the exam that it was more to see how you had done. It was for an external company and
it wasn’t going on my record. So as soon as I realised that I said to myself if I don’t
know something just move on. I am grateful that I did AP courses. I just regret taking all
of them, that’s all. My recommendation would be to pay attention in high school to see
what subjects interest you the most. There is no use in being a hero.
Low marks. A concern for most of the participants was the fact that they could be
penalised for taking AP course by getting lower marks than if they had taken regular courses.
Carol said: “The only drawbacks that I can see are the lower marks maybe, because it didn’t look
quite as good on my transcript.” Honour roll status as well as concerns over marks on transcripts
for possible scholarships and entrance requirements into certain universities was of concern to
the participants. Regarding this aspect Susan said: “Yes that’s why I didn’t take AP English in
Grade 12. Like I knew I needed to get really high marks to get scholarships and get into
university.” Balanced with this concern was the understanding that the AP courses would be
beneficial in the future. David recognised this trade off in his reflection.

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The AP program is far harder than the other classes, so you are going to kill these people
on the honour roll. We were penalized in the marks department, but we both said it’s the
best thing we did in high school, because it made us stronger in the learning department.
Social emotional concerns. High school life for some students can be busy. Balancing
academics with extracurricular activities and maintaining social contacts can be a challenge.
Fitting everything in to a busy schedule posed a real challenge for the participants. Mary talked
about the tension that this created for her:
It was really stressful because I was a growing teenager and I was well behaved, but I had
issues with my parents. It was kind of like a power struggle, because at the same time
that I wanted to be successful in academics, I also wanted to be a good friend for my
friends. If I was solely in academics I wouldn’t have time to be there for them when they
needed me.
Susan said: “I worried about how I was going to fit in study time, but I didn’t really worry about
my social life. I had my friends who I hung out with but I didn’t have a very big social life.”
Meanwhile Ed said: “I did have to cut back on friends, music, playing instruments and stuff. I
wouldn’t say totally out, but I did have to cut back a little bit.”
Having friends who were also engaged in AP courses seems to have helped the
participants. When asked about the importance of peers doing the same courses, Linda stated:
Honestly I don’t know how I could have gotten through without them. You know, I think
it would have been kind of tough to be going through these courses and the amount of
work I was doing while my entire group of friends was going out and having a good time.
John talked about competition in the AP classes. He stated: “I never encountered anybody that
wanted to do well at the expense of other people.” On the other hand, university experiences

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appear to have been different. Linda lamented that at university she had “...lost friends over it
[competition]”. This was echoed by Paula when she said:
Especially in university there are some students who are getting their “A+” and they will
not help anyone on their way. They want to get that one grade. You do see that and you
do see that they don’t have a group of friends.
The findings in this section deal with the logistics of taking AP courses. In general, this
model of delivery appeared to work for the participants although concerns were expressed over
the impact of grades. Friendships during this time were found to be an important factor.
The Importance of Time Constructs in Motivation.
The majority of the participants showed a strong future orientation. Among the
comments cited were those by Linda, who said: “I think I have an ability to really have a future
goal in mind and for me it’s always been medicine and so that was just my driving force to keep
going.” Another participant spoke of being a future oriented person in this way:
I am a future goal oriented person. I actually have a list of goals for myself on my cell
phone right now. They are long term goals where I see myself in three to five years.
Right now, even if I do get a bad mark, I realise it is one small thing and it is going to be
a tiny part of my life and it isn’t going to define me and I get back up, I read some
inspirational quotes on line and I review my goals. When I fail at something I usually
like to reflect on the things I have been good at in the past and I tell myself if I could do it
back then I can still do it now. (Susan)
There is evidence in Susan’s statement of another aspect of how the participants view
time. In addition to being future oriented we can see how she uses past positive experiences to
motivate herself. These statements are evidence of a much larger concept that seems to exist and

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that is that all human activities take place on a time continuum. As such, events are either
anticipated in the future, occur in the present, or have already occurred in the past. Most of the
participants, like Susan, appear to have positive attitudes towards their past experiences, even
when those experiences had been difficult. This aspect was also illustrated by John when he
said:
Not dwelling on failings and instead dwelling on successes makes it a lot easier to work
in the university environment, because there is so much pressure and coming out of the
AP program you feel better able to deal with it because you have seen it before and also
you have felt the pressure before.
The following statements also illustrate the position of the present in the time constructs of the
participants. Both Ed and Trish demonstrated a strong present focus in their statements. Ed said:
“I was aiming for fours and fives and honestly I wasn’t thinking too far ahead,” while Trish said:
As a career path I don’t know what I am doing, but I know that what I am doing is good
for me right now. My short term goal is to get my bachelor of science, but I am not sure
where it is going right now.
Having a strong future orientation appeared to help the participants stay on track. They
had to make tough choices, for example, studying rather than hanging out with friends. This
encompasses the idea of delay of gratification and was expressed by Linda in the following
manner when she said:
All my friends were taking it [AP] so it was kind of a common interest we had.
However, I did lose touch with people that didn’t have the same goals in mind. I had a
lot of friends in high school that were more concerned about what was happening on the

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weekend or going out after school and so it was tough to have that kind of work ethic, to
say I need to focus on my studies and do school work.
The key finding in this section was that all of the participants appeared to have a strong
future focus. This was found to be an important factor in the motivation fabric of the
participants. Past events of a positive nature were also found to be beneficial in this regard.
Self-efficacy and Resilience
Introduction. The notion of self-efficacy is suffused throughout the statements of the
participants. It is perhaps not surprising that all of participants should have spoken of selfefficacy since the journey through high school and university is filled with challenges and
obstacles that have to be overcome. Developing a belief in one’s abilities to handle these
challenges is crucial to the success of the individual. Inherent in this concept is the fact that one
inevitably has to experience adversity in order to develop resiliency. As we have previously
seen, prior to taking AP courses the participants had experience little stress in their school
careers. The challenges posed to the participants by AP courses seem to provide an opportunity
to develop the crucial aspects of self-efficacy and resilience.
Resilience. We can see the stress created by the new challenge of the AP courses in the
reflection of the following participant.
At the beginning of the course I was overwhelming myself, but as the course went along I
started picking up the pace. I started adapting, adjusting, and I think I learned a lot of
skills about time management, organisation, precision, and decision making because of
the pressures and challenges that had been put into this course, and I think that is very
valuable in my life currently (Mary).

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In this reflection there is also the idea of the process of adaptation and adjustment or a
recovery to a state of normal functioning, all of which are indicators of resiliency. The
challenges presented by the AP courses appear to have been constructive rather than destructive,
and were informative rather than demoralizing. In the process of being exposed to adversity the
participants developed a mental toughness or resolve. John described how he handled the
possibility of failure in a positive way when he said:
Yeah and not quit once you failed. I think if I did I wouldn’t have gotten through AP.
Having that ability to keep going even though you didn’t do as well as you hoped is
something that every university student needs to have. You just have to pick yourself up
and get through the course or get through the week.
The informative nature of failure was expressed by Mary when she said: “Failure can be a great
teaching tool. If you fail, you learn what you did wrong.”
All of the participants described the benefit of having to work through some of the
anticipated challenges of university while still in high school. John recognised this when he
stated: “I had that confidence that I had seen the material before and I had written a big exam and
I had been able to study on my own, so I could do it by myself.” John commented on his
resilience when he stated:
Towards the end [of AP], especially after exams, I was thinking that nothing I’ll ever do
is going to seem that hard and I was later proven wrong by a few things at university, but
I’m much less intimidated now in university, because I know deep down that I did AP.
Self-efficacy. The belief in one’s abilities to handle anticipated events in new situations
is critical to a successful transition from high school to university. Trish described it in this way:

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I was a quiet kid going into AP with not a lot of confidence. Coming out I had opened up
more and definitely gained a lot more confidence. I think it was partially class size and
partially the whole experience of AP. You get to find more confidence in yourself which
helps. You can just disappear in big classes in university.
Beth described writing a calculus test in university in this fashion: “That is always really nice
when you go into a calc test and you ace it. It is a wonderful feeling.” There is a sense of
confidence in her words which is echoed by Ed when he said: “AP definitely made me believe
that I could be successful in university. It would almost be guaranteed as long as I kept up with
my work and did my studying.”
Self-efficacy by mastering skills. One of the primary ways in which beliefs in one’s
abilities can develop is through experiences that lead to mastery of skills. Meeting the rigorous
challenges of the AP courses seems to lead to the development of skills that promote the
confidence to handle new academic challenges. When asked if he felt that he had developed
skills through his AP experience, John replied:
It was probably in my Grade 11 year that it was starting to pay off. It was paying off in
terms of knowledge and in my work ethic. In my other courses I felt like I had really

figured

out how to study and what worked for me.
Carol had this to say about her AP experience when she confronted a new and challenging
academic environment.
AP was a big help, partially because of the knowledge. When we were writing the exam
to get the scholarship it helped, just in general knowledge and in writing essays, and it
also helped me feel more confident, because I knew I had already taken some college

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level classes, so I knew I could take classes that were at a higher level once I got to
college.
Meanwhile Susan had this to say about the role of AP in her self-belief systems:
I don’t think that my confidence really increased, but I know, like for sure if I hadn’t
taken AP, my confidence would not be good for first year university, because I wouldn’t
have been able to do good in my classes. That I know for sure, because even though this
is the second time of going through all the course content, I had to study very hard to get
the grades right now and a lot of my self esteem comes from my grades. So if I hadn’t
done AP I would have done worse and my confidence would have been not good at all.
The sense that AP is perhaps a vehicle for the development of self-efficacy is embedded in the
following reflection from Ed. He said:
I’ve always had a pretty strong sense of my abilities but the AP was really good in
providing evidence that I really could do it. It provides a vehicle to work on that aspect
and the result of the AP provides you with the evidence, either confirming the belief in
yourself or telling you that you need to get with the program a little more.
According to Ed, the AP courses provided the participants with the feedback to allow
them to gauge how they were doing in their development. In this regard, as well as ongoing
assessments from their instructors, the participants sat an examination in each course. For most
this was the first time that they had set an exam that had been prepared externally by the
administrators of the AP program. The participants recognised these exams as being the biggest
challenge they experienced in high school. In addition to this it was possible that the participants
might have experienced an increased challenge if two of their exams were scheduled for the
same day. David reflected on this challenge in the following manner:

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I was sort of scared about AP exams at first because it was a new thing. I wasn’t so
scared in the second round, but the first time I was pretty terrified because it was
something completely different, but we did a lot of practice and you sort of had an idea of
what was coming, but at that time it seemed like such a huge amount of information
because compared to everything else you do in high school it is a huge amount of
information. I now realise it is not such a huge amount of information and I just didn’t
know how to learn.
We can see in David’s reflection how having met the challenge in the first instance in Grade 11
appears to have led to a greater sense of confidence the second time around in Grade 12.
Self-efficacy by proxy. Peers provide another important source of information for the
development of self-efficacy in the individual. Individuals are sensitive to their position among
their peers and regularly make comparisons. In this regard the overall majority of the
participants talk of AP courses as being competitive but in a healthy way. As Chris talked of this
competitive aspect he described how it reinforced his feelings of self-efficacy. He said:
I would always compare myself with others. I wouldn’t make it a competition outwardly.
It was more of an internal thing for me, because I hate making other people feel bad. If I
beat them it’s not flaunting, it’s just more of an internal reinforcement. It helped me
feel better about myself and gave me a reason to do stuff.
Other participants expressed similar reflections:
Like in Organic Chem, I have an “89” or so, but I know it is one of the highest marks in
the class, so it gives me some confidence. (Beth)
It’s almost like being surrounded by that group of students that are also pursuing that AP
course with you is like a confidence booster. Like, I can keep up with these people who

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are heading in the same direction as I am. That was helpful in terms of grounding
yourself and realising where you are heading. (Paula)
A final aspect of self-efficacy that was expressed by the participants went beyond academic
skills and concerned interactions with peers and instructors. John felt that:
AP really showed us how university was going to be. You are going to be in there with a
group of people that are just as engaged, and you are going to have to compete with them
and co-operate with them at the same time, and can you meld those two things together.
In one course that some of the participants took they were challenged to take a national
biology competition. In the process they would be compared to approximately 7000 of their
peers across Canada. Susan said about this experience: “I was a little intimidated by competing
against kids across the country because I didn’t want to find out I wasn’t as smart as I thought I
was.” Colin saw it this way:
I was in the top 250 and I felt pretty good about that. It was the first time I had been in a
big competition. I was nervous, but I remember feeling really good afterwards, because I
knew how many kids had written it and I knew I was in at least the top quarter.
Other sources of information came from helping others with their school work. As Paula
said: “That’s a confidence booster too because you end up helping the other students. You know
it solidifies your knowledge when you teach someone else.” Comparisons with others’ abilities
and other levels of work were sources of information for the participants as is shown by the
comments of the following participant.
When I helped kids in lower level classes the material was really different. Like, if I was
in physics and I helped someone in regular physics, like their material was just a lot
easier and it showed me how different AP was. (Carol)

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Teachers and professors are also sources of information. David described how he felt
when a professor suggested that he could take a harder level of course. He said: “I thought it was
something interesting. I liked it a lot and it was a confidence booster and that prof is now my
advisor. It was a confidence thing.”
The key finding in this section was that the participants developed resiliency and selfefficacy through their AP experience. Instrumental in this process was the informative nature of
confronting adversity and persevering through the challenge. The development of self-efficacy
and resilience appeared to result from the experience of having mastered challenges.
Comparisons with peers were also found to be an important source of information in the
development of self-efficacy.
The Learning Environment
The large number of comments concerning learning environments, both within and
between the interviews, would suggest that this is a vital component in the journey through high
school and university. Learning environments are multi-faceted and dynamic systems. This next
section of the findings looks at the reflections of the participants concerning the important
components of these environments
Motivational aspects of belonging to a community of learners. Being involved with
students who were interested in learning appears to motivate in a number of ways. Paula talked
about the excitement she felt once she arrived in her AP courses: “I knew that all the other
students were also interested and wanting to learn.” It made the biggest difference and kind of
made it more exciting.” The same notion of excitement was expressed by Susan when she said:
I was excited because I felt like I would be going somewhere. I felt like I could get better
and that this is going to take me somewhere. I expected the class to take homework

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much more seriously and I expected the teachers to have much higher expectations of
their kids and to not take any fooling around. I felt like I had lots of work to begin with.
I just felt like the teacher didn’t have to push their students to do well. The students
actually wanted to do well themselves. In other classes they go soft on their students.
They will push back deadlines and allow assignments to be turned in late. I felt better
about the challenge because I really value homework and I like people who are similar to
me I guess.
There appeared to have been a sense of wanting to keep up to the group. Paula expressed
it in this way:
I also found just the students in the class were also more determined in terms of reaching
different goals and at being prepared for exams for example. That helped because it’s not
quite a competition but you want to keep up to pace with the rest of the class.
For some who weren’t as focussed, being with motivated individuals seemed to provide a
structure that helped them. Regarding this aspect Colin said: “Being with a group of AP students
you get more focussed on the work...It helps me. When I am with kids that don’t really want to
be there it hurts a lot actually.”
Altogether, accessing AP courses was significant for all of the participants. The new
environment appears to have provided a sharp contrast to what they had previously experienced.
The frustration of being in environments where learning was not valued by all appears to be
replaced by gratitude at being in classes where the opposite was true. The notion of AP classes
as a refuge is present in the following statements.
AP gave that little refuge in high school. [AP] showed that things got better and that
there were people out there that were like-minded, and that helped a lot because you were

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with people that didn’t necessarily fit in with the rest of the high school spectrum
either. (John)
I think AP was almost like a safe place because you had that group of people who were
going through the same thing and you were all working towards the AP goal. It did give
me more confidence. I don’t exactly know how, but it did. I definitely came into high
school as a shy quiet person and left as a confident person. (Trish)
The learning community: familiarity versus anonymity. Based on the responses of
the participants, one of the most critical elements of the learning environment appears to be the
presence or absence of a sense of community. Alan described the contrast in community found
in high school and university in this way: “For our biology class for example, it is hard to say
that we were individuals in the class. We were the class. At university in our chemistry class for
example it was hard to say that it was anything more than a group of people learning chemistry.”
The sense of community felt by the participants in high school appears to have beneficial
possibilities as is shown in the following reflections.
Definitely it felt a lot closer at the end of three semesters. You got to know your peers
better. You felt very comfortable and although I wasn’t intimidated by the material, it
was challenging, and having that comfort level, that feeling of community, and of really
knowing your teacher well, really helped actually get through the material. (Ed)
It’s good because you are able to be yourself more too, which is where it helped me
because I was able to be myself and grow as a person, because there weren’t any changes
occurring around me. (Trish)

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On the other hand the anonymity felt in large university classes appears to have a
negative impact. John stated: “In my first year classes [at university] I was one in two hundred
maybe and never said a word to my professor. He had no clue who I was.”
An important dynamic of the classroom in high school is the forging of strong
relationships with instructors and peers. Forming friendships with people that are like-minded
and following similar paths is important. These friendships extend on beyond high school and
into university.
I think some of the friends I have now I met through AP. You kind of pushed each other
to do better, which is what you need. There were a few nights especially before tests
where everyone would get together and we would be worrying about the same things but
we would all help each other out. It was nice to have that support group. (April)
I also found that there was a core group of students that really followed through in that
program and I found that even just being surrounded by those few students you grow
closer together so you have a close group of friends to help through the coursework and
high school in general. (Paula)
The following participant talked about the loss of community being tempered by the fact
that a number of his friends were in the same classes as himself. He said about this loss of
community:
I think the only reason that I hesitate on that was because I had school friends in almost
every class I had that first year, so I still had a tiny little bit of it, but with professors and
large classes...that aspect of community was completely gone. (Alan)

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For some, the sense of community facilitated engagement with the course materials.
Again, this engagement is potentially lost in large impersonal classes at university as is
illustrated in the second of these reflections.
You know as students...we all worked together and the instructor kind of engaged that
way. You know, we were all kind of exploring it together and that was neat. I felt I was
more engaged in the course. (John)
Paula felt that she initially lost the sense of community when she went to university. She
reflected on how she felt she had regained some of that back in her senior courses at university.
In the last sentence we can sense the anxiety caused by the loss of familiarity in a new
impersonal environment.
I mean I took my advanced anatomy class this year and we had ten students. It was
almost the same as the numbers from my AP class. Like, you knew everyone in your
class really well. You could have one on one time if you needed. So it was more
familiar. In the big classes in the auditorium the teachers don’t know who you are and
you are still getting used to the university experience in general. (Paula)
The idea of the difficulty of feeling engaged in the learning process and the difficulty of
feeling connected to large university classes has occurred in these reflections. When asked if
they felt these difficulties were a function of the class size the participants offered these
observations:
In my first year my biggest class was about 80 and my smallest was eight. In the class of
eight you walk in and the anonymity was still there, but I think because it was a smaller
class and because the professor was good, the group grew a lot faster, so some of it is

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dependent on class size but also a big factor is the professor, because I also had a
class of forty and that class grew quickly too, like in asking questions for instance. (Alan)
Like I think in big classes it is important for the professors to really bring themselves to
the students and get people knowing each other. In AP we were always encouraged to
talk to other people and it was really good and I think it is really important for the
professor to make a sense of community in the class. (Alan)
In these statements it is apparent that the role of the teacher or professor is paramount in
establishing the sense of community. As a student coming to a new learning environment, there
is the sense that this loss of community causes stress. Trish reflected on it in this way:
A lot of kids that come to Brandon are from small towns and so they might be the only
person from their graduating class, so they don’t really know anyone and then they get
into these courses and they don’t have that experience to help them along and they just
struggle through the whole experience.
Even if first year students at university have a network of friends, their first experiences
at university can be difficult. On the subject of the loss of community, Paula had this to say:
At the beginning yes because you are getting used to the experience right and it would be
nice to have closer contact with the professor. Like should we emphasize on this topic.
They don’t like giving you information like that. I had lots of professors that don’t give
you that information. (Paula)
Some of the participants had attended post-secondary institutions which appeared to
recognise this period of difficulty. One of them talked about a program in which she had been
involved as a first year student.

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They did have a “journey” program where there were fifteen students in a similar major
to you and you had at least two classes with each other and your journey leader was a
professor. It was helpful in that I got to know him and he got to be one of my primary
professors. I did get to know the other students as well although most of them are no
longer chemistry majors. I made some good friends and my professors have been really
helpful in terms of stress related things. They understand and they are good, not like in
terms of not letting me write a test because I am stressed but like in terms of having
someone to talk to. (Beth)
In this program, intentional efforts appear to have been made to build a sense of belonging to a
learning community.
Finally, as a counterpoint to the previous discussion, one of participants offered this
reflection on the idea community.
If you have really big classes it’s gone but you don’t feel cold about it at all. It almost
feels like childhood where you grow up and you leave. You depended on the community
in high school but it makes you independent, because the AP community in the classroom
is like “Okay we have given you the tools you should be fine now.” It was kind of like
leaving the nest. I actually feel pretty good being independent and responsible, both
skills I learned and honed in AP. (Ed)
Developing into an independent and responsible student is a worthy goal for all
individuals. The majority of the comments given by the participants suggest that the abrupt
change that occurs upon entry to university provides a problematic start in this process.
Congruence in courses. Another aspect of the learning environment that appears to be
important to the participants is the congruence within their courses, both in AP and at university.

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Congruence in a course implies an agreement between events that happen in the course, which
leads to the students being confident of the expectations of the course requirements. The
participants felt fairly treated when the course structure was reflected in the final assessment.
Mary expressed this in the following way: “It became obvious that there was a harmony between
what we would be doing and what we were asked to be doing.” On the other hand, the
participants expressed feelings of resentment and frustration when this basic premise was not
met. Mary talked about this when she said:
You know, it’s hit and miss [in university]. Some professors are very good at preparing
you. Their testing style and coursework reflect that. There’s been some where you
almost get hit over the head, so to speak, in the final exam. Sometimes you don’t know
what you are walking into and it’s frustrating.
Congruence between coursework and assessment. There is a general agreement from
the participants, that they did not experience many surprises in their AP exams, and that for the
most part they felt they were well prepared. On this matter David said: “The AP exam was set
standard. So there was the hope that we had gone through everything in class and everything on
the test would have been mentioned in class for the most part that was the case.” Trish echoed
this sentiment but also suggested.a significant difference between AP courses and those of
university.
I felt like most of the time I knew what the format of the tests was going to be partially
because the teacher would tell you and then you would know what to expect and how to
study for it, whereas in university you don’t get that. You just know you are going to
have a test. You know there might be this. You know there might be multiple choice but
you don’t know exactly what it is. You know that it is going to take longer to prepare to

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do well on a test like that when you don’t know what exactly the format is, what to
expect from it.
In the following complex reflection from Beth she illustrates the frustration caused by
uncertainty in the tests given by one of her professors. Although she seems fairly stoical about
the situation it is clear from her words that this was a cause for concern and we can wonder about
the validity of the pedagogical technique employed by the professor.
There are definitely more surprises on tests. My chemistry professors are bad for that.
Like they will talk about something in class and then they will test you on something
else. I never saw that in AP. It always kind of pisses me off. I mean on one hand if they
test you on something from the textbook then you know you should have been studying
that, but when he talks for three weeks on something else and it is not on the test. Or on
the next test you say you are going to learn everything perfectly from the text then you
get tested on something covered on the lecture that isn’t in the textbook. That’s always
a challenge. I get really angry for about a day and then I say, “Alright there’s always the
next one and I will do better on the next one”. I have told him but I think he takes secret
pleasure in pissing us off.
Unfortunately this wasn’t an isolated event as was reflected in the comments of other
participants.
For the most part you have a pretty good idea of what you are getting into for the exams.
There is the odd exam where you go, “Whoa! Where did that come from?” Usually the
feeling is consistent amongst all of the students, so it’s usually more a problem that the
professor had in making the exam. I have had a couple of exams where the material was
not covered in class, and sometimes the problem is that teachers use past exams without

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really reading them through, so there is material that was never covered this year but was
three years ago, and I mean those questions aren’t really fair, right? This never happened
at high school. (Paula)
I remember I got an 81 or an 82 on my first chemistry exam and it was all stuff I had
done before. It was fairly simple AP chem. It was just the way they worded the
questions and the amount of work they expected you to do in only two hours. It was
almost as if they wanted as many people to fail as possible. I had “A”’s and other people
that had done AP had around the “70”’s, but the average mark was still failing. (Brian)
If we examine the final statement we are perhaps left wondering how those students who
had not taken AP were feeling. The situations expressed in these statements, while widespread,
appear not to be universal as we can see from the following participant, who compared his
experience at his university with his friends at theirs. He said:
I have had really good luck with tests. I did get text messages from some of my friends
from their university about chemistry, not knowing if they could even finish the course. I
couldn’t understand what was so bad because we had done it all with our high school.
(Ed)
In this case, we are again left wondering perhaps if this level of inconsistency between
institutions should exist.
The final reflection here provides an illustration of the serious impact of these practices.
I complained a lot to other people. I didn’t do much because everybody had that feeling
already. Like I don’t know if anyone has voiced it to the professors and they just don’t
care or whether nobody has actually voiced it to them. I imagine they have told them that
they just don’t care because it is the only department where I have ever felt that. It is

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frustrating. It can cause career changes. I had a friend that was going into chemistry.
Now he isn’t. He is gone. When I said I wanted to be a doctor in my third year I went to
take some chemistry courses and because of those courses I said, “No!” Like even
though I love the medical field and I’m really interested in that kind of stuff, because of
those courses I said “No!” because of those professors there. I had applied to U of M
when I was going to university. If I had gone there I would probably be on a completely
different career path. I would probably be going to be a doctor. (Alan)
There is a lot of emotion expressed in this last sentiment. What is apparent from these
reflections is that pedagogical practices appear to reduce or elevate stress. To a large extent this
appears to depend on whether or not there is congruence between what the students anticipate
and what they actually get in the way of assessments.
Congruence between coursework and anticipated future studies. Concerns over course
congruence also centered around whether or not the course prepared the participants for future
events. The perceptions of the participants concerning their high school experiences as a
preparation for university are considered here. On a positive note John stated: “The AP exams
are exactly what you are going to see in university as far as the types of questions, the length of
time, the degree of difficulty, and things like that”. Other participants echoed this sentiment
when talking about the relevance of multiple choice questions they had done in high school.
Rachel said: “Most of it was multiple choice tests during my first year because of the large
classes. In AP we did masses of multiple choices so it just became second nature” and Susan,
who said: “Multiple choice helps a lot not just in biology but in every subject. I realised when I
first went to university that that was one of the most important testing skills to have.”
On the other hand, Linda expressed her concern over one AP course when she said:

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I didn’t feel I gained as much from one course. Taking the first year course at university
was nothing like the AP course. I was a little disappointed with that one to be honest and
a little upset with the time that was put in to it.
Role of the instructor. The efficacy of the instructor who develops the learning
environment appears to be instrumental in whether or not that environment facilitates or hinders
the development of the students. The final aspect of the findings looks at the ways in which
instructors at the high school and university levels support their students. There appears to be no
general pattern in high school or university. Findings present factors that were important to the
participants.
Teacher role. Simply being an AP teacher is not sufficient to develop a constructive
learning environment. The teacher cannot just show up, but must also meet the expectations of
their students. Carol described the difference that she saw: “The teachers were good. I really
liked all my teachers. They helped more and actually cared about the material a little more.”
David seemed to echo this sentiment when he said: “Most of the AP teachers promote their
students in trying to academically achieve. I got the sense that some of them didn’t care, but
overall I felt I had a good idea of what real teachers are like.” The following two participants
reflected on the importance of the attitude of the teacher. Brian said: “I liked the way that some
of the teachers taught it. I need enthusiasm from the teacher. If you are one of these sort of
screw around teachers I don’t like that.” Finally Ed reflected on the effect that the teachers had
on their learning environments.
For the AP classes that I did receive what I expected, it corresponds to what I told you in
terms of you could tell that the teachers really cared about learning and really took it
seriously, and in those same positive classes I found that the kids were also very receptive

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because of the teacher’s attitude as well, which calmed them down and everyone seemed
more ready to learn and were enjoying their experience, which means there was less off
task behaviour making it easier to learn. If the kids see that the teacher just doesn’t care
or isn’t trying hard then the kids won’t try either and if the kids see the teacher really
trying then they will want to respect the teacher and try hard as well.
Professor role.
Messages. Many of the participants experienced messages from their professors that
probably would have been quite startling at a minimum and may have been quite disheartening at
another level. Some of these messages, both explicit and implicit, might have been experienced
for the first time.
The professors were aiming for an average of less than 50 it seems. That was the main
class where I said to myself that they don’t seem to care. They make their exams
purposefully hard because they don’t want to teach and so they will get smaller enrolment
in their upper year classes. That was what made me really mad, because there were four
midterms first year and two exams. I think out of all of them maybe one of them had an
average mark higher than fifty and when you see that half of your class is being
devastated by this and they will come up to the board and give you all the marks and then
when the professor comes in and says to the class that they have ranked all of you on
your test and on the top of your page it says where you are in the class and this many
people in the class and if you are in the last twelve you should drop. Like what kind of
learning environment is that. That is absolutely ridiculous! (Alan)
For some the message may have provided information, but for Alan, there is some emotion to his
words and the messages appear to have affected him strongly.

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Lack of care. Given that it was a new environment in which the students did not know
their professors, and given that there were may have been a lot of students in the class it is
perhaps not unreasonable to imagine how professors might be perceived not to care. Paula was
fairly blunt when she said: “Prof’s don’t care. They get their money. They don’t care if you
have done your work or not.” A similar sentiment was expressed by April when she said:
University is so different from their high school experience. You don’t just know how to
study and do well because everything is so different. Like the teachers don’t get on your
case anymore. They won’t be like, “Do your homework today because you are going to
get a test soon.” I got the feeling that since I was in a huge class the professor could
really care less if you did well or not because the professors always know there will be
students that will do well and ones that don’t deserve to be there.
Meanwhile Alan and Trish both saw the lack of caring as a result of teaching not being
the primary concern of their professors. Trish said: “There are a lot of professors that would
come in to the lecture and then would leave and here are their office hours if you need anything
otherwise don’t bother them.”
It was kind of the first time that you were being taught, let’s say in chemistry in
particular, where they don’t care if you fail. They say they are there to help but they are
not. It’s just a job to them. They want to do their research. They don’t want to teach.
You get that feeling for the first time when you get certain classes and certain professors.
The course I took in first year, at least the professors I took them with actually didn’t
seem to care how you were doing. (Alan)
Care. Not all comments were negative and there were some examples of instructors who
showed a degree of care. According to Alan, while he felt that certain departments at his

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university were not doing a good job he had special praise for the Physics department. He said:
“Physics is an extremely good department. The professors care a lot about the students.” Other
participants found some of their professors to be approachable when seeking help. Rachel
thought that end of course performance assessments of the professor might have been
instrumental.
If I had a quick question I would usually email them first to set up an appointment. If it
was a quick question you could go to them before class or after but usually if I had a
longer question I would email first. Most of them are pretty open and if you can’t meet
them during office hours they will make time outside their hours. They have year-end
assessments from their students and they will take that into consideration.
Teaching background. In a similar fashion to their acknowledgement that their AP
teacher was not necessarily efficacious simply by title, the participants also recognised that even
though their professors may have been experts in their fields, it was no guarantee that they were
efficacious as teachers. Alan saw a possible change that could occur in their training:
Especially for university professors, teaching is just part of what they do. There is also
their research. Maybe they should get some educational experience to the professors,
because you can go through your PhD and barely have taught anything. They can do labs
and stuff like that but they have no formal teacher training so I think that could be one
major thing that could change.
The participants had felt engaged in some of their AP classes as a result of the interactive
pedagogical processes employed by their teachers. In contrast to this, there is a sense of
disconnection in straight lecture environments. Trish saw it this way:

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Just the way the classes were taught. It was a lot of lecturing compared to AP where
there was more involvement with the subject material. In university the professor just
stands in front of you and lectures and lectures.
The most significant finding in this section is the benefit to students that can be achieved
by being part of a learning community. Instrumental in this aspect is being with an instructor
whose efficacy is critical in developing this sense of community. Another important finding is
the effect of congruence in course structures. Congruence appeared to be beneficial, while the
lack of congruence contributed to stress, anger and frustration. The final finding in this section
suggested the critical importance of pedagogical processes in the learning environment. In the
following chapter all the findings will be analysed within the context of the literature previously
presented and the conceptual framework.

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Analysis, Interpretation, and Synthesis of Findings
Introduction
The purpose of this case study was to explore the role played by Advanced Placement
courses in the transition of students from secondary to post-secondary education. The study
explored the transition as seen through the eyes of students who had been involved with these
courses and who were now attending university. Through the perceptions of their experiences,
the study attempted to illuminate the factors that may have been instrumental to the students in
their transitional process. The rationale for this study emanated from the desire to uncover ways
to help more high school students make a successful transition to post-secondary education.
Increased understanding of the journey from secondary to post-secondary education might
reduce the number of students who experience difficulty during this time. Knowledge of this
transitional process could be used by stakeholders to inform programs, both at high school and
university, with the possibility of improving the articulation between the two levels of education.
Adjustments on both sides of the transition bridge may help to reduce the serious loss of human
capital currently experienced.
The research attempted to move beyond the more traditional cognitive indicators of
success, such as high school performance, and attempted to delineate those factors in both the
cognitive and affective domains, that had been instrumental in the transition process for the
individuals in the study. To this end, the study used naturalistic inquiry to collect qualitative data
by conducting semi-structured, in-depth interviews with twelve university students who had
taken AP courses while at secondary school. Initially the data were coded, analyzed, and
organized by research question. Consistent with the exploratory nature of the study, the second

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layer of data analysis involved sorting the data by emergent categories, as indicated by the
evolving conceptual framework. The study was based on the following five research questions:
1. Do the participants perceive benefits from having taken Advanced Placement courses,
and if so, what benefits do they perceive?
2. On completion of their first year of university, how do the participants perceive that they
had been prepared for the challenge of university?
3. What were the perceptions of the participants regarding the challenges involved in taking
Advanced Placement courses?
4. What factors do the participants consider to have been important in their choice to take
Advanced Placement courses?
5. When considering the journey through high school and on into university, what factors
were considered to facilitate the process and what factors were considered to hinder the
process?
The five research questions were designed to allow the participants to describe their
journey through high school and on to university and these questions were largely answered by
the findings presented in chapter 4. The overriding finding in this study was that the participants
perceived that their transition to post-secondary education had been facilitated by the experiences
gained in their AP courses and that, in the vast majority of cases (92%), it had been a successful
transition. Knowledge of course material to be taken in university, together with the acquisition
of study skills and habits were perceived to be the primary benefits of having taken AP courses.
This chapter will provide an analysis, interpretation, and synthesis of the findings and is
organized into the following analytic categories:
1. Successful transitions. (Research Questions 1&2)

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2. The choices and challenges associated with taking Advance Placement courses.
(Research Question 3&4)
3. The role of the learning environment in transitions (Research Question 5)
These analytic categories are derived from multiple levels of analysis of the findings. In this
analysis, I have attempted to explore these categories in depth to illustrate the patterns that
emerged within. In addition, analysis across categories was used to illustrate overarching
themes.
Whereas the previous chapter presented the findings of the study by organising data into
categories to produce a sequential narrative, the purpose of this chapter is to provide interpretive
insights into these findings. The findings chapter is a reflection of the process in which the
original data was split apart and sorted into related pieces. In contrast, this chapter attempts to
put all the pieces back together through analysis and synthesis to form an integrated holistic
model of the transitional process.
Initially, similarities between the ways in which the participants perceived their
experiences were noted to establish key patterns. Although the experiences of the participants
may have been similar in event, their conceptualization of those events was different, reflecting
the individual nature of their perceived experiences. Analysis involved recognising these
different perceptions of similar events in order to build a more complete picture. During
analysis, I was mindful to remain open to unexpected connections, rather than simply look for
the anticipated connections that framed the study. Finally, the developing structure was reflected
against the body of reviewed literature to determine consistency or otherwise and also to
determine if, and in what directions, the findings went beyond the territory already explored.

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The discussion is set against the backdrop of the literature concerning post-secondary
education, AP programs, and aspects of human development. The journey of students from
secondary to post-secondary education takes place in a dynamic environment that involves
interactions between many variables. Through the analysis of the perceptions of the participants,
it is hoped to provide a greater understanding of key elements that facilitate a successful
transition. The chapter concludes with a summary that incorporates a note of caution regarding
the effect of possible researcher bias in interpreting the findings.
Transitions
Transitions are integral to the lives of humans and involve changing from one state to
another. In some cases they are a necessary condition of our biological development, as in the
transition from adolescence to adulthood. In other cases these transitions are not dictated by
biology, but are nonetheless a necessary part of human existence, such as when an individual
transitions from the world of school to the world of work. These changes may not be just
physical but may also involve recalibration of our thought processes, as we readjust and
reorganise the internal constructs that make up our being. There is no implication concerning
speed when considering transitions; they can be both gradual and abrupt. While gradual
transitions give the individual an opportunity to prepare for the event, or allow the individual a
period of time to adjust to the changing conditions, abrupt transitions provide no such luxury.
Pregnancy potentially allows the parents to prepare for what will be a life changing event,
whereas the sudden loss of a loved one creates an abrupt transition for which there is no
preparation. Even when there is an opportunity to prepare for transitions, they inevitably provide
surprises to the individual as it is difficult to accurately experience an event just by mental
preparation.

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Transitions are commonplace in education. Each progression through the respective
levels of schooling involves a period of transition. Up until the point that the students choose AP
courses, the differences in the expectations from one grade to another are not enormous and
involve a gradual process of skill acquisition. Curriculum documents oversee this gradual
process and provide for a co-ordinated and sequential development of skills. Articulation
between the grades is embedded in the scope and sequence of activities that are taught. Topics
are revisited and new knowledge is built on previous learning in a constructivist manner. In this
way, the material taught in a previous grade becomes a scaffold for what is to come in the next
grade, thus providing a basis for facilitating a smooth transition from one grade to another.
When the students choose to take AP courses, however, they experience a significant
shift in expectations in what had been otherwise a gradual process. At a later point they may
experience a similar abrupt shift in expectations when they first enter post-secondary institutions.
In both cases there is an overall increase in the rigour of the courses. Some examples of this
increased rigour are evident in the difficulty of reading materials, increased homework
expectations, expectations towards independency, testing rigor, and degree of complexity of
material. As well, there may be significant changes in pedagogical processes and philosophies
used in the delivery of the courses. At the outset, these abrupt changes create a very different
environment with new challenges, which can be disconcerting to the students.
The concern felt by the individual is the result of the degree of difference between their
new reality and what they had been used to previously. This initial fear or concern over the
unknown is modified once the individual interacts with the new environment. The unknown
now becomes a reality and the individual can begin to gather and process information and assess
their position in their new environment. The participants expressed feelings of being

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overwhelmed in the initial phases of both AP courses and also post-secondary courses. In
response to the new expectations, the individual is required to recalibrate the structure of their
lives in order to be successful. Possibly as a result of this recalibration, during which they
became used to the new set of expectations, the feelings of concern seem to be replaced over
time with feelings of greater comfort and confidence.
For the participants of this study there are in fact two significant transitions. The first
transition occurs when the students move from regular stream to AP courses and the second
occurs when they then progress to post-secondary education. These two transitions have
common elements and consequently there is a similar repeated sequence of events that occurs,
first in high school and then again in university. As a result, students who have had the AP
background have knowledge gained from those experiences that other students may not possess.
Upon entry to post-secondary education, rather than going through the recalibration process for
the first time, AP students can use their past experiences to help them navigate through the new
environment. For graduating high school students in general, however, their first significant
transition may occur when they enter post-secondary education. For most high school students
then, post-secondary environments are largely abstract constructs, whereas there is the potential
that AP students have a better initial understanding of those same environments.
The sequence of events that occurs in these transitions appears to correspond to the
general notion of social and academic integration proposed by Tinto in his model of postsecondary education (Tinto, 1975). The ability to be able to adjust and make the changes
necessary to effect this integration is a measure of the self-efficacy of the individual. Antecedent
conditions are seen by Tinto as important predictors of post-secondary success, but surprisingly,
self-efficacy is not specified directly in his model and yet is a key variable in both the social and

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academic integration of the student into the post-secondary environment. In this regard, it is
possible that the challenging move into AP courses should also be considered as an antecedent
condition in the following manner. As a result of making the jump to AP courses, the
participants experienced a similar set of circumstances to which they will be exposed again at a
later date during their transition to post-secondary education. The old adage that to be
forewarned is to be forearmed has relevance here as the participants would have had a set of
experiences that they could fall back on and from which they could gain knowledge. This might
be a significant difference between themselves and many of the other students at post-secondary
institutions who have no such experience on which to draw. This difference in experiential
preparation can be seen in the following reflections. In the first case, Paula talks about framing
the new experience of receiving lower marks.
Like I did get some marks in the AP course like 70 per cent. That was new to me. Like I
was used to getting really high marks...like it is a learning experience right, and you
aren’t just going to get a one hundred percent on everything. So you get used to getting
some lower marks than you expect, which is a good preparation for university again,
because you can’t just drop everything and think it is the end of the world if you get a
poor mark.
The learning in this experience is evident and we can imagine that this may have provided her
with an experiential framework to draw upon at university. Conversely, the reflections of April
illustrate an alternative experiential background.
...the students that came from schools that didn’t have AP were over confident, which
was what killed them. For example, they got a hundred per cent in their chemistry and
they are like, “Oh yeah it’s going to be no problem, I aced the final exam.” (meanwhile

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the) AP students would just kind of look at them and be like, “Yup! Good luck!” That’s
all you could say to them was that it was going to be a shock and it was. It really
was.
In this picture the students appear to have a reference framework that doesn’t include dealing
with adverse conditions such as receiving marks lower than they anticipate. It is interesting to
note the perspective of the AP student in this reflection. It indicates a very different attitude
towards the value that is placed on high marks achieved in high school.
The findings illustrate considerable variation in the perceptions of these transitions.
There appears to be a continuum that ranges from shock and awe on the one hand to feelings of
familiarity and comfort on the other. One of the reasons for this variation appears to be how well
previous experiences have prepared the individual for what is to come. In other words, if the
degree of articulation between antecedent and subsequent experiences is poor it is reasonable to
expect a high degree of concern. On the other hand if the degree of articulation is strong, then
there should be a reduced level of concern. In this regard we should consider the articulation
between regular high school courses and AP courses, regular high school courses and postsecondary courses, and AP courses and post-secondary.courses.
In the participants’ high school, as in other high schools outside of the United Stated,
there is not necessarily a good articulation between regular stream courses and AP courses. The
gap between AP courses and courses based on the Manitoba curriculum should not be surprising,
however, since the AP courses are based on curriculum outcomes that are independent of
Canadian provincial curriculum documents. As well, the timeline for the AP course and the
exam schedule is in harmony with the school year in the United States and not the school year in
Canada. This requires a compression of the courses in the second semester as the exam is

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scheduled for the early part of May, whereas the semester end in Manitoba is at the end of June.
In some models of delivery, students who choose to do AP courses move into this stream in their
Grade 9 year, with the AP courses completing what is essentially a four year programme of
advanced study. In this way prerequisite material is covered and the courses taken in the earlier
grades do provide a scaffold for the subsequent courses.
The participants’ high school adopted AP courses while remaining consistent with the
existing Manitoba curriculum. This was done such that students could move freely between the
two levels of course without serious gaps in the curriculum. As a result of remaining faithful to
the Manitoba curriculum in Grades 9 and 10, the move into AP courses is fairly abrupt.
Previously taught material does not necessarily provide a scaffold for the AP courses, both in
content and in rigor. As a consequence of this abrupt change, students experience the cycle of
events previously outlined.
The articulation between regular high school courses and first year university courses
should be sound, but the findings suggest that this may not be the case, particularly with regard
to science and math courses. One of the stated aims of science education in Manitoba is to:
provide students with a proficiency in science that creates opportunities for them
to pursue progressively higher levels of advanced study, prepares them for
science-related occupations, and engages them in science-related activities
appropriate to their interests and abilities (Manitoba Government, 2011, p. 2).
This stated goal is present in the current documents for high school science courses and while
there is no clear statement to the effect that the courses will prepare the individual for postsecondary education, there is that implication. The development of the curriculum is not done in
isolation, and during the review process, members of post-secondary institutions are included in

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the review panel. In light of this, it is perhaps surprising and unfortunate to see evidence of a
weakness in the articulation as perceived by the participants.
The following reflection of April illustrates the difference between her preparation in her
AP courses for chemistry and calculus and other students in her class. In the process her account
points to the potential gap in content articulation between the two levels of education.
When I got my first year chemistry outline of everything we were going to cover, there
was an entire section on things we should know. I took this in my last two semesters of
AP Chemistry but a whole bunch of people around me had hardly covered the list. I took
calculus again in university and people were still hanging onto their high school precalculus and they would have to ask for help all the time.
The value of a good articulation between the two levels of education is revealed in the following
comment made by Ed. There appears to be a note of comfort that is available as a result of this
articulation.
Concerning classes, I didn’t feel intimidated at all, because I was familiar with the stuff
from the AP experience. I thought as I looked at some of the worried faces that they had
never heard of it before and we had been talking about it since Grade 11. It sure helped!
University entrance requirements are predicated on evidence of a high school education
experience which measures the degree of competence that an individual has demonstrated while
covering a body of information deemed necessary to enter first year university courses. Despite
the representation of post-secondary faculty on the curriculum review panel and the implicit
relationship between secondary and post-secondary education in the goals of the curriculum the
transition to post-secondary.education is by no means smooth for many students. There is
evidence of a weeding out process that is part of the philosophy of certain post-secondary

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faculties, notably those in Science, Math, and Engineering. This weeding out process has a long
history (Seymour and Hewitt, 1997, p. 5) and appears to convey a distrust of the preparation that
students receive at high school. Some faculty professors assume the role of gatekeeper in this
weeding out process, and allow only the most capable to continue on to further studies in their
discipline. In the following reflection, we can notice the implication that it is not the task of the
professor to teach, but simply to select. It is also of some concern to note the expectation of the
professor that first year students will already have the understanding of how to write in APA
format, as this is not typically an inclusion in secondary education.
One of my profs was kind of insulting the students as soon as they got there and it was
like, “You have no idea how to write and if you want to pass this course you are going to
go home and you are going to pick up and learn how to write APA style and you are
going to learn how to write and if you don’t you might as well give up now, because I
know that high schools aren’t teaching you how to write.” (Susan)
In an environment such as this, many students who may show on paper that they should be
prepared for a first year university course find out in a hurry that in fact they aren’t. This is
morally troubling. If the end product of a high school education in Manitoba is a person who is
not adequately prepared for university education, then it calls into question the integrity of the
articulation of the two levels of education
The articulation between first year post-secondary courses and AP courses provides a
contrast to the previous discussion. Since the AP courses are built on a consensus of what
constitutes a first year post-secondary course, there should indeed be considerable articulation
between the two. A measure of the degree of articulation is suggested by the fact that numerous
universities recognise the AP course as being equivalent to a first year course. Some universities

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in the province of Manitoba do not accept this premise almost as if they have a distrust of the AP
preparation in a similar fashion to the distrust that they have of high school preparation in
general. In those universities that accept the validity of AP marks, students with high standing in
AP courses are allowed to proceed on to second year courses without taking the first year
required courses. This suggests the possibility of a common curriculum that is followed and a
common body of knowledge that is at the heart of first year post-secondary courses. The
perceptions of the participants were that there was indeed a high degree of articulation between
their AP courses and their first year university courses. Alan gave an example of this when he
talked about how his experience might have been different if he had not seen the material before.
Like if you had gone into first year university without AP, you get hit with a lot of new
material and so you have a year of going, “Holy crap what is going on!” Whereas, since
you took the material in high school you had your chance to do all your developing and
you had a year of university where you had a chance to adjust to the new environment.
It’s a little bit easier. It’s not so much of a shock.
By stretching the students out in high school and including additional material over and above
that indicated by the Manitoba curriculum, the courses appear to have closed the gap between the
high school experiences of the participants and the required level of experience necessary for
post-secondary courses.
The question of sound articulation between different levels of educational experience
goes beyond course content. A dimension of greater importance concerns the self-efficacy of the
individual. Within the context of the current study, Bandura (1997) believes that “perceived selfefficacy is a better predictor of intellectual performance than skills alone (p. 216). Without an
accurate understanding of how to be successful in new environments and “without the personal

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resources to select and structure their environments in ways that set a successful course,” (ibid p.
177), knowledge itself is of limited use. The implication is that people with similar cognitive
abilities may have different levels of success dependent upon their levels of self-efficacy. This
has obvious critical implications in the transition from secondary to post-secondary education.
When initially faced with managing a new environment, people rely upon their data bank of
information gathered from past experiences. Once the new environment is encountered and they
begin to acquire information through new experiences, however, their success in navigating
through the new environment is influenced moreso by their self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1997).
In considering the transition to post-secondary education then, it is of considerable importance
that the individual has a wealth of relevant and accurate past experience to draw upon.
Individuals are born with few innate abilities beyond those essential to survival in the
first days of their lives. In this state they have limited abilities to make choices about their world
and impose those choices on their world, in other words their sense of personal agency has yet to
be developed. This sense of personal agency develops as a result of them witnessing,
experiencing, and engaging in experiences with their environment. Through these interactions,
they begin to understand causation and eventually are able to recognise that they have a role to
play in this causality in their own lives. Bandura (1997), the leading proponent of self-efficacy
as a key determinant in human lives, states that self-efficacy is the belief “in one’s capabilities to
organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments.” (p. 3) Selfefficacy has no definitive boundaries. Developments and refinements in a person’s self-efficacy
are ongoing throughout our lives as a result of continually experiencing new situations.
When students make the jump to AP courses they need to be encouraged and nurtured
once they are enrolled. The jump up in academic expectation is quite frightening for the students

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and helping them understand that they can be just as successful at this new level should be part
of the ongoing philosophy of schools. It is generally recognised that the students are still
developing the necessary skills to be successful beyond high school rather than already having
acquired those skills. As such, the curriculum not only constitutes a body of information to be
covered, but becomes a vehicle for the teacher to engage with the students in helping them
recalibrate the skill and effort levels that will be required in order to be successful, not only in
their new environment, but also in the environment beyond high school. This process is in
keeping with the stated aims of the curricula in Manitoba as has been previously shown. There is
a gradual process of skill development and mastery as challenges are encountered and overcome.
The culmination of these actions for the participants is the challenge of the AP exam. According
to their perceptions, this was the hardest academic challenge that the participants faced during
their time at high school. In this reflection by Susan we can see how the knowledge of mastering
this challenge had been incorporated into her schema of self-efficacy.
For example in biology at university when I did badly on the first mid-term I think back
to AP Biology and I think “Hey! You know what? I got a five in AP Biology and even
though the students around me have also taken AP Biology, I was a five and so if I
could have done that good then my potential is there and I can do better on the final!”
As a result of confronting and learning to deal with these challenges, the self-efficacy of the
student has the opportunity to develop.
In contrast to the school environment, the general expectation of post-secondary
institutions seems to be that the necessary level of self-efficacy is already in place rather than
being a construct that is still under development. Evidence for this is provided by the general
design of courses and the general lack of support given to students in their first year of post-

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secondary education. Often first year courses are large and as a result are impersonal, which is
in sharp contrast to what the students may have experienced in high school. Engagement is not
easily encouraged in these environments unless the instructor makes a deliberate attempt to reach
out to the students and engage with them in the learning process. Difficulty in engaging in the
learning process is further compounded in some cases by the unwillingness of the instructor to
assist. The dimensions of this environment, in which there is a sense of loss as a result of the
lack of engagement, are illustrated in the words of April.
The thing is though I really missed that when I first went to university. I couldn’t talk to
my professor. I couldn’t discuss anything. He would say something and so badly I
wanted to elaborate on it or make a comment. I wasn’t getting that engagement where I
could learn further, whereas with AP, I could ask a question, and it would be elaborated
on. I could think about it and have an active discussion, which I think is one of the best
ways to learn, but at university the prof just talks and if you have a question you might
get lucky and it might be answered. My classes were 200 to 250 students so there was no
chance. I managed to see my philosophy professor for a little bit after class but the profs
also don’t have a lot of time either or they appear like they don’t have a lot of time. So
that is something that I really missed and that was also a shock.
It is a recognised phenomenon in post-secondary environments that excellent teachers are
not held in the same regard as excellent researchers. Tenure and promotion are rewards of
research and not of teaching. Thus the post-secondary system promotes a philosophy that is not
necessarily conducive to this engagement and is in sharp contrast to the pedagogical processes
embedded in the high school system.

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The provincial government sits on both sides of this transition. On the one hand they are
responsible for the development of provincial curricula that provide the entrance level of
education for post-secondary institutions. On the other hand they are the largest funder of postsecondary institutions in the province. Given that they straddle both sides of the transition, it is
ironic that in many cases it seems that it is business as usual in post-secondary institutions and a
high level of attrition still continues in some faculties. It is surprising that only recently the
concept of self-efficacy and the dynamics of the classroom have been given consideration in the
discussion concerning the integration of students into post-secondary environments (Tinto,
1997). Given that there appears to be a lack of understanding or acknowledgement of the need to
continue with the development of the individual’s self-efficacy it is perhaps not surprising that
there should be such high rates of attrition at post-secondary institutions.
A confounding issue in post-secondary education is the difficulty that apparently bright
individuals have in negotiating the transition. The previous discussion potentially points to
possible causes and may also suggest solutions. If an individual does not have an authentic sense
of self-efficacy upon graduation from high school, it could lead to difficulties when transitioning
to post-secondary education. In connection with this, Perry et al. (2001) suggest that many
bright students are overly optimistic about their potential to succeed at university. In other
words, their optimism is based upon experiences that have led to a sense of self-efficacy that is
not authentic. In part, they suggest that the expectations of the high school students may not be
based on relevant academic experience. They may base their optimism on their high school
experience and may anticipate that university is going to be much like high school. This is a
faulty schema that has been learned and reinforced through their experiences in the public school

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system. When they are subsequently faced with the reality of the unanticipated challenges of
university they may be at risk of academic failure. In the words of April:
The intelligent students are the ones who get hit the hardest, because they are the ones
that can look at a paper for fifteen minutes before a test, memorize it all and ace the test.
Then they go to university and expect the same thing and they get hit hard. Then you
have the kids who don’t have the same capacity to do so and know that they have to take
the time (to study)...when they get to university they do better often than the smart kids.
The smart kids haven’t developed the skills they need. It’s really unfortunate when you
see these highly intelligent people get low marks and you are wondering what is going
on, and it is the study skills they failed to develop when they were in high school.
Bandura and Schunk (1981) showed that when successes are hard to come by, individuals
with high efficacy have the capacity to persist in order to overcome the obstacle, whereas those
of low efficacy are rapid quitters. A serious question that is posed by the current study is
whether or not the perceived lack of challenge in regular curriculum instruction, together with
the consequent lack of skill building and poor development of self-efficacy belief systems are
contributing factors to the high levels of attrition at university.
Because of the challenges inherent in AP courses it seems that the participants were able
to develop a reasonable and reliable sense of self-efficacy. The overwhelming majority (92%) of
the participants in this study felt that the experiences that they had gained through their AP
courses had provided them with a firm base for managing the rigors of post-secondary education.
The perceptions of the participants correspond to findings of other students who reported having
to work much harder in their AP courses than in other courses. The findings further suggest that
much of this hard work was directed towards fundamental academic skills that would be

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necessary in order to be successful at post-secondary levels of education, such as preparation for
the exam, writing lab reports, studying, and reading the textbook (Sadler & Sonnert, 2010). In
this way AP courses require a more honest assessment of factors that lead to success. Bandura
(2000) suggests that the most effective way to create a strong sense of efficacy is through
mastery experiences. The implication, however, is that at first the individual may fail at the skill
but through a prolonged and sustained effort they may overcome the obstacle and in the process
add to their schema of self-efficacy. Creating conditions of failure in today’s educational system
is a difficult proposition and yet it is necessary if the students are to develop self-efficacy beliefs
that are authentic.
It is not a given, however, that the students will possess this framework simply because
they choose to take AP. The courses are just a framework on which to build activities that could
develop the self-efficacy of the individual. For example, science courses are not just based on
content, but should also contain lab components to build an understanding of the material and
also develop lab skills necessary for post-secondary education. Some of the participants recalled
encountering students who had also taken AP courses in which there was little or no lab
experience. As a result, these students appeared to be deficient in skills when it came to the lab
component of their chemistry course at university. Conversely, students who have not had an
AP experience may be able to develop the self-efficacy framework necessary to make a
successful transition to post-secondary education. The key determinant here is the rigor of that
high school experience. Research shows that a rigorous high school experience appears to be the
strongest predictor for a successful transition (Adelman, 2006). Further to this, the same
research suggests that this rigor should be present in both the curriculum and in the process of
the delivery of the material.

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In all cases, including AP courses, students need to challenge themselves and be
challenged by their instructors to go beyond their levels of comfort. In the process, they will
confront possible failure and be able to learn from the experience. In this regard, AP courses
culminate in a final exam challenge, which appeared to be of benefit to the participants. Again
research shows that taking an AP course without taking the exam offers no particular benefit
over taking a regular high school programme (Sadler & Sonnert, 2010). The act of studying for
a difficult challenge is a key element to the development of the self-efficacy of the student. In
the absence of these difficult exams, high school students in Manitoba only face two externally
constructed exams; one for Math and one for English. The pressure of having an externally set
exam covering a large body of information provides valuable experience to the individual before
they move on to post-secondary education.
According to Bandura (1997), “educational practices should be gauged not only by the
skills and knowledge they impart for present use, but also by what they do to children’s beliefs
about their capabilities, which affects how they approach the future” (p. 176). In this regard
concerns are raised by social critics that question the effectiveness of the public school system.
Some believe that the system fails to prepare the youth adequately for the future by
“undermining the very sense of personal efficacy needed for continued self development” (ibid.
p. 175). There is an uncomfortable conflict between this position, the position taken in
curriculum documents, and the statistics that point to the difficulty of transitions to postsecondary institutions. Rather than there being a large gap between the skills required for high
school and those for post-secondary education, it appears that the effect of AP courses is to close
the gap, thereby making the transition smoother. A note of caution here is in order. Simply

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offering AP courses is not a panacea for solving this problem. It is apparent that the delivery
model of the AP course and the efficacy of the teacher are also critical to this endeavour.
Choices and Challenges
The perceptions of the participants suggest that there were a number of factors, both
extrinsic and intrinsic, which led to their decision to take AP courses. Extrinsic factors included
inputs from family members, peers, and school personnel. While these factors were seen to be
important, their function seems to be in support of the decision made by the participants rather
than the deciding factor. The critical unanimous factor in the decision appears to be that the
participants were internally motivated to look for challenge. In our lives, we tend to be either
motivated towards or motivated away from experiences. There is a potential ambiguity in this
decision as it may be that we feel we are motivated towards an action, when in fact we are
motivated away from something else. This bi-directional system of motivation “toward” and
“away from” is inherent in the participants’ decision to enrol in AP courses.
In consideration of the motivation towards a more challenging environment this is
consistent with individuals who have future based aspirations (Bandura, 1991). All of the
participants felt that being involved in a more rigorous program would help them be successful
in university. In other words, their decision to take AP courses was motivated by the thought of
a reward to be attained in the future. Bandura (1977) explained that “cognitive representations of
future outcomes function as current motivations of behaviour. Many of the things we do are
designed to gain anticipated benefits and to avert future difficulties” (p. 161). This motivational
construct is reflected in the words of one of the participants.
I think at that point I just wanted the challenge, something to make myself work harder
because I felt that I was cruising and wasn’t putting a lot of effort into school at that point
and it bothered me. (Trish)
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This future orientation was instrumental in the participants’ decision to take advantage of an
academic challenge that went beyond that of the typical high school experience. As John
recalled, “It was a very base level for all students and it was difficult to go above and beyond
that.”
The future based ethos of the participants that is evident in their perceptions also lends
support to the work of Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) and the concept of “Time Perspectives”.
Their work describes the differences in the way that individuals construct time. In their research
they find in general that people who have a strong future orientation are often found to be
“highly organised, ambitious, goal seekers who felt pressed by time, but were willing to sacrifice
present enjoyment to achieve their career objectives” (p. 1281). In this description we can see an
important element in the makeup of these individuals, and that is the ability to delay gratification
in order to take care of immediate responsibilities. This line of research also suggests that there
is often a significant social cost that is attached to this future based goal seeking ethos. By
having no time to waste hanging out with friends or making them in the first place, these
individuals may pay the price in terms of social development. In a nutshell then we can see the
consistency between this research and the general makeup of high achieving goal seeking
students such as those in this study.
The participants also revealed an “away from” dimension in their motivation to take AP
courses. In this regard we need to consider the idea that they were motivated away from certain
conditions that might have existed in their previous classes. Participants generally expressed the
sentiment that they had never really been challenged in their regular classes. In addition, some
participants suggested that they had been bullied because of their abilities and that as a result
they had remained fairly quiet in class in case they were exposed to adverse treatment.

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It is a little bit of a refuge for the smart person because you kind of get tormented by the
not so smart kids. I was bullied quite a bit in high school. I would probably have
switched to a different school if it wasn’t for AP. I was almost going to switch to another
high school because it was smaller and there wasn’t as much of a divide and there
weren’t as many cliques. There were a lot of cliques at my high school and it could be
rough for somebody who didn’t have a clique. (AP) was a refuge. It made it a lot easier
to come to school because it was pretty rough in my first year of high school. I really
didn’t like high school much at all, but I liked AP. (David)
Moving in to AP classes seemed to be a welcome relief for many of the participants as
they now encountered an environment where behaviours that they had repressed were welcomed.
A number of the participants described the AP classes as a haven for them while they were in
high school. In a continuation of the same theme, they expressed that involvement in AP classes
had been what had made their high school experience something to be remembered.
The notion of time as a construct and as a resource to be used is of great importance in
this discussion. The very nature of AP programs increases the pressure on this resource for
students as they have to commit more of the precious resource of time to their studies in order to
be successful. It is important to note here that the model chosen by schools for the
implementation of AP courses can either exacerbate or ameliorate these time concerns. The
study gathered limited information on this aspect and will therefore only address the model used
by the high school in question. In the participants’ high school each AP subject involves taking
three high school courses rather than the typical two. By extending the time in which to deliver
the course material, the model allows for a more relaxed and thorough delivery. In this way, not
only can the necessary academic skills can be developed through the delivery of the course

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content, but time is also available for the development of social and emotional skills that are
critical to future success.
Once involved in the AP program, all of the participants encountered challenges. Perhaps
the biggest of all these challenges was balancing their time between academics and just being a
teenager. The question of continued motivation is a challenge both for the student and the
instructor. Bandura (1977) provides an insight into this question. He states that:
self motivation is best maintained by explicit proximate sub-goals that are instrumental
in achieving larger future ones. Sub-goals help to create present inducements for action,
while sub-goal attainments provide the self satisfactions that reinforce and sustain one’s
efforts along the way. (p. 162).
At the same time as the students had a future focus, they were very much grounded in the
present. Those that had a clear goal in mind seemed to have the construct that the events of each
day would eventually lead them to their ultimate goal. Those that did not have a clear goal
beyond going to university also seemed to have the same schema. This is in keeping with
Bandura’s notion of proximate sub-goals. Goals that are set too far in the future are not effective
motivators for the present. During the journey they experienced hardships but their strong
commitment to their future goals, either broad or specific, together with their developing selfefficacy skills enabled them to have the resilience to continue on their path.
Supports and Barriers
The final factors that emerged as being integral in the journey of the participants appear
to be the learning and instructional environments encountered at high school and at postsecondary institutions. The importance of these components to the participants was reflected by
the large number of references made to them, both within and between transcripts. In these

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reflections it is apparent that elements encountered in these learning environments were found by
the participants to either help or hinder their progress.
This research spans the final stages of high school and the first stages of post-secondary
education. In addition to the challenges of the transition to university, the students are
negotiating other significant challenges as they also transition from adolescence to adulthood. In
this process they are moving towards independence and autonomy. Paradoxically this need to
move towards independence comes at a time when they need the care and attention of others to
assist in the transition. An important source of support during this transitional period is provided
by efficacious adults in learning environments. In discussing the implications of self-efficacy in
schools Pajares (2000) states:
parents and teachers who provide children with challenging tasks and meaningful
activities that can be mastered, and who chaperone these efforts with support and
encouragement, help ensure the development of a robust sense of self-confidence and of
self-worth. Beliefs of personal competence and of self-worth ultimately become habits of
thinking that are developed like any habit of conduct, and teachers are influential in
helping students to develop the "self-belief habits" that will serve them throughout their
lives.
The findings suggest that the structures of the learning environments and the behaviours of the
instructors in those environments may or may not acknowledge these challenges and in the
process these structures and behaviours may significantly impact the journey of the individual.
In a study of the reasons why first year post-secondary students switch from science,
math, and engineering majors, it was found that 40% of those surveyed reported problems related
to high school preparation, whether they switched majors or not (Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). In

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general this under-preparation appears to have two dimensions: deficiencies in curriculum
content and subject depth, and failure to acquire appropriate study skills, habits, and attitudes.
Findings from this study revealed a common story of high school where students:
always found mathematics and science easy, ‘scored’ high grades in these subjects with
little effort, and were accustomed to praise from teachers, family and peers. Rarely had
their teachers made appropriate demands on their abilities. Achievement targets had been
set well below their capability, and they had been neither stretched nor challenged. They
did little homework, or did it hurriedly at the last minute, and were often left to their own
devices while teachers worked with the rest of the class (p. 84).
This chilling picture appears to be reinforced by the findings of the current study. The
participants reported finding their regular high school classes as lacking true challenge. Upon
reaching their post-secondary institution, they reported seeing many students who were confident
based on their high school experience, but in reality were underprepared for the new experience.
Given that the “executive” decision making capacity of the adolescent brain is not developed and
that these individuals therefore struggle with associating consequences to their actions, it is
perhaps not surprising that individuals should develop a false sense of their abilities. Upon
reaching university and encountering an environment in which they are autonomous, where noone takes attendance, checks to see whether you are doing your work, cares about you, and holds
you accountable in the process, it is small wonder that there is a significant attrition rate.
What is most distressing about the attrition at post-secondary institutions is that it appears
to be confounded by high school marks. Individuals with good high school marks, suggesting
competent abilities, are also involved in the attrition process. If the marks are obtained in an
environment similar to those described above then they may have little value going forward.

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The words of the following participant describe this situation as well anyone.
You start off with a lot of people who are chemistry majors and biochemistry majors
and math majors and they get so downtrodden in the first couple of weeks because they
have never learned to read the textbook for themselves and they fail the first two tests
and they drop out of the program completely. They go there with these big dreams
because they were top of their class and they have never seen AP or difficult classes and
they fail their first chemistry test and they fail their first calculus test because they didn’t
have calc in high school and they didn’t have a decent chemistry teacher in high school
so then they think they can’t do it. I would say that about 80 per cent of the people, who
were chemistry majors when they started in the first year, dropped out [changed
majors]...it’s hard for them. Like their dreams are being crushed number one and now
they can’t even get through their first semester as a chemistry major!” (Beth)
It seems as though the students, in not being prepared for the reality of university, have
been set up to experience a process that appears to be psychologically devastating. It is difficult
to accept this situation as the status quo and not feel as though it is an issue that should be
addressed. Conversely, this reflection also points to the value that the individual sees in her AP
experience.
The participants were motivated to take AP courses both by the lack of challenge in their
regular courses and also by the opportunity of challenge that was afforded by the AP courses. It
is interesting to note that some of the participants felt uncertain of their abilities going into AP,
even though they had performed well in previous grades. Some of their comments revealed their
understanding that they really hadn’t done that much to earn their grades.

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I was just so unsure of myself. I was deceived into thinking I was going to be great at it.
I was used to getting one hundred per cent, but I was spending fifteen minutes looking at
the paper before the test. The first couple of tests (in AP) were definitely a reality check.
I put in a good amount of effort, but I realised that what I had been doing was not
enough and I adjusted to it. At first it was horrible, it really was, but it became normal
and it became no big deal. (April)
Academic self-beliefs are built primarily as a result of mastery experiences. Authenticity
of these experiences is critical, since false notions of abilities can result from experiences that
lack real challenge. The danger of creating this artificial self-concept is that no real resilience is
developed and consequently the individual does not stand up to well to challenge and adversity.
Erick Erikson (1959/1980) put it this way:
Children cannot be fooled by empty praise and condescending encouragement. They
may have to accept artificial bolstering of their self-esteem in lieu of something better,
but what I call their “accruing ego identity” gains real strength only from wholehearted
and consistent recognition of real accomplishment, that is, achievement that has meaning
in their culture. (p. 95).
With this in mind, the participants seemed a little apprehensive about the AP courses
since it was perceived to provide a greater challenge. Although this study is limited in its scope,
there is at least a possibility that the experiences of the participants in this study are not
dissimilar to those of other high school students throughout the province. In this event, it is
perhaps not surprising that graduating high school students arrive at university with unreasonable
expectations concerning their abilities. Observations of their peers at their post-secondary

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institution lend support to the notion that many high school students arrive at university with the
expectation that it will be business as usual and similar to high school.
On the other side of this transition is a potentially hostile post-secondary environment
which is in sharp contrast to a general high school experience. First year courses appear to be
particularly difficult as the transition is not gradual, but rather abrupt. In an environment that is
entirely new, there are few structures in place that are designed to help the student. Gone are the
high school classes with familiar surroundings, peers, teachers, and expectations. In their place
are often large impersonal classes where there is little engagement with the instructor. Lecture
style presentations replace discussions and co-operative learning is often replaced with isolated
endeavour. These changes in pedagogical structure, together with significant increases in rigor,
create a situation that can be very stressful for a student who is used to a learning environment at
high school that is far more personal and supportive.
Recently in the United States there has been a growing concern over the levels of attrition
in post-secondary education, particularly in the areas of science, math, and engineering. As a
result, research has been conducted to examine the possible causes of such attrition. In one such
study of the factors affecting choices of female majors in science, mathematics, and engineering,
Manis, Sloat, Thomas, and Davis (1989) reported on the experiences of students that had
dampened their enthusiasm for these subjects and undermined their motivation to continue.
Characteristics of the classes that led to these perceptions were:
poor teaching or organization of material; hard or confusing material, combined with
loss of confidence in their ability to do science; cut-throat competition in assessment
systems geared more to weeding out than to encouraging interested students; dull subject

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matter; grading systems that did not reflect what students felt they had accomplished (as
cited in Seymour & Hewitt, 1997, p. 35).
Unfortunately other studies (National Academy of Sciences, 1987; The Scientific Research
Society, 1989; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997) support these findings.
There appears to be a fundamental belief system of certain faculties that the problems of
attrition are external to the faculty. They believe that the material is inherently difficult and that
only a certain elite percentage of students will be able to handle the material. This is in contrast
to the more democratic philosophy of high school, which adopts the position of being able to
clarify material in order to make it possible to understand. (Seymour & Hewitt, 1997, p. 10).
Consequently, some faculty believe that their role is one of selection rather than education. This
is done in order to correct wrong choices that students may have made in selecting their course
of study (National Academy of Sciences, 1987; Seymour Hewitt, 1997). In line with this
philosophy is the idea that in order to be kind to the students the faculty needs to weed out those
that have made the wrong decision.
These findings highlight some of the possible features of post-secondary environments
that students must navigate in order to continue on their path. The reflections of the participants
in the current study lend support to these previous findings.
I had a professor tell us that fifty per cent would drop the class and twenty five per cent
would fail it. If you fail your first exam either fix what you are doing or you should
probably drop the class. (Colin)
The message in this reflection does not convey any assurance of support but simply tells the
students to make a better choice for themselves. Further evidence that the philosophy of
selection as opposed to instruction still exists is present in the recollections of the participants.

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Familiar statements such as “look to your left and look to your right” are still trotted out
regularly by instructors like a mantra. Attitudes that the instructor is there to convey material
rather than teach material are still present.
Another area of concern for the participants was the question of congruence between
course content and examined material. Again, this calls into question the integrity of the
learning environment. Generally this congruence was something that the students could count on
at high school but seems to be elusive at post-secondary institutions. A number of participants
recalled uncertainty over test material and the intentions of the instructor in the process. In some
cases the material had never been covered in the lectures and was also not available in the text.
For Ecology especially, I thought I understood the material and I would study quite well
in my opinion and I would get to the test and would get a 71 or something. There were
some aspects where I couldn’t believe that I could make that mistake, and there were a
few questions that I didn’t know where they came from because we hadn’t done them at
any point in the class and they were not in the textbook. At that point of having new
material and being uncertain of what was on the test and of what was expected of us and
what not, it was quite stressful. (Brian)
In another case, two sections of a course were taught by two different instructors with two
different sets of content, only to be tested as a unified whole. Old tests that did not reflect
current material covered by the instructor were still used. Here is another example that caused
obvious concern for the individual.
The Organic Chemistry course was fairly well laid out it’s just that he didn’t write the test
for that one. The other professor did because there were two different slots for that

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course. It seemed to me that the other professor (who wrote the exam) didn’t seem to like
students. (Brian)
These examples suggest an environment that is not particularly supportive of the students.
The grading systems used in post-secondary institutions.have been shown to present
problems to students (Manis et al, 1989; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). Curved marking schemes
encourage a cut-throat competitive environment that does not promote co-operative learning and
have the potential to select as much on psychological makeup as they does on academic ability
(Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). This environment would have required the participants to have
made significant adjustments since it would have been a far cry from what they had been
accustomed to at high school. At high school, they would have competed against a body of
information, rather than each other. Theoretically they could have been in a class of exceptional
students all of which could have received high marks. Since they were not competing with each
other but only with themselves, co-operation and helping others would not have been
discouraged. One participant, who attended a large provincial university in which more than one
section of course was taught, explained that each course had its own separate curve and therefore
individuals in another section were not in direct competition with them. The impact of this was
that the individual studied with, and helped other students, only if they were in a different class
and not their direct competition. People in the individual’s class were seen as threats as is shown
in the reflection of Paula.
Especially in university there are some students who are getting their “A+” and they will
not help anyone on their way. They want to get that one grade. You do see that and you
do see that they don’t have a group of friends.

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The potential cutthroat nature of the learning environment fostered by curve marking systems
inherent in post-secondary environments presents a tough lesson for a young person and assumes
that they are psychologically prepared to handle the experience. Again, Seymour and Hewitt’s
findings suggest that this is not the case.
In addition, curved marking schemes do not necessarily reflect the achievement of the
individual. In high school, the students would have been exposed two only two standardized
exams; those being in Grade 12 Math and English. All other tests would have been teacher
based, and would have reflected the content of the course. The participants expressed real
concern over the testing in certain areas of their post-secondary experience. In one faculty for
example, the class average was below a passing mark in all but one of four mid-terms and two
final exams. The participants did not feel that the exams were particularly difficult in terms of
material. Instead they felt that a degree of difficulty had been built in to the exams because of
the large amount of work required and the difficult semantics of the questions. Comments from
the participants revealed the difficulty they had with these situations, which was tempered
perhaps by their position on the grade curve.
Somewhere between their regular high school programs, with what was perceived by the
participants as a lack of challenge, and their first year courses at post-secondary-institutions,
which were perceived by the participants as being potentially hazardous, lies the AP courses. As
they are offered in a high school context, there appears to be the understanding that the student
is still very much a work in progress and not a finished product. Consequently the individuals
are provided with the opportunity to stretch themselves above and beyond the challenge of
regular high school courses under the supervision of an instructor who provides support for their
development. Under the supervision of an efficacious teacher, the students encounter and master

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challenging material and in the process they appear to gain a more realistic sense of the
difficulties that await them at post-secondary levels of education. As a result, instead of
operating with a false optimism about their abilities based upon their high school experience,
they appear to have a healthy set of skills and self beliefs that enable them to handle the
challenges that they encountered at their post-secondary institution. Instead of realising that their
high school preparation was perhaps faulty, they recognise that they are in fact well prepared for
the challenge.
Analysis of the participants’ reflections of their AP courses generally reveals a
constructive environment in which significant development occurred. In the delivery model
employed by the participants’ high school, for each AP subject taken, the students mostly
interact with one teacher over a period of three semesters. During this time the students and the
instructor can develop a sense of familiarity and community. The close connections that are
forged between the students and also between the students and the instructor are very important.
As John stated: “The instructor was very good about getting to know all of us. We were treated
as a group. We all got to know each other and got to know the instructor.” This sense of
community appears to be an important element in the motivation and development of the
individual as is demonstrated in the following reflection.
You are getting more personal attention and you are in a smaller group and a great
learning environment and you feel like reaching higher I guess. It makes a difference
when you get praise from your teachers and you know you are on the right track. It is
definitely harder in large classes. (Rachel)
The findings suggest a sharp contrast between this environment and that of first year
university courses. In some disciplines, first year classes are often large and impersonal and as a

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result there is a great potential for anonymity. This can be very stressful for a student who is
used to a more familiar learning environment at high school. Perhaps this is why first year
courses appear to create the most problems. Once past this “selection” year, the classes dwindle
in size and the students can potentially recapture that feeling of familiarity which nurtured them
in high school and which they lost when transitioning to post-secondary education. As Saraid
recalled, “There was more a sense of community in AP. You knew your teacher better than you
had known teachers before. It seemed more like a partnership. That also happens in the smaller
university classes.” Given their potentially hazardous nature, it is difficult to argue with the
criticism that these structures act more to select students than they do to educate students.
Consider the following reflection.
Like I knew if I needed some help I knew which students to ask. You know the people in
your classroom well enough and you know your teacher well enough if you had
questions. That all changes in university because you are sitting in a class of hundreds of
students. You don’t really know any of the students so it is quite intimidating. Since you
are just one of hundreds of students you don’t really feel like going up to the professor
because you don’t really know who he is. Some of the professors introduced themselves,
but some of them just get right into the course and they don’t care too much. (Rachel)
There appear to be a number of assumptions made in post-secondary environments with
regard to the abilities of the incoming students. Not least among these assumptions is that the
students will possess the psychological framework necessary to handle the events that have been
described. The following participant talked of his reaction to the “selection” practices he
endured at university.

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It didn’t devastate me because I was always one of the higher numbers. Like it made me
extremely angry with the professors because, even though I am in competition with these
people and I want to do better than them, I hate to see people being put down that much
and that’s not what it should be. Like this is higher learning, this is not higher putting
down. It shouldn’t be about, “We want you to fail and you shouldn’t be in this class. If
you are below a certain mark don’t even bother working hard. Spend time on other
courses because you are not going to pass this one.” That is not a motivating
environment. (Alan)
One is left wondering about the validity of processes that create such conflict in an individual.
One is also left to consider that the selection process followed at post-secondary institutions may
be more on the basis of psychological profile than it is on academic ability, in which case, does it
do a disservice to the individuals and the country as a whole.
Revisiting Assumptions from Chapter One
In the context of the analysis of the findings, it is useful to revisit the three assumptions
underlying this study that were stated in Chapter One. These assumptions, presented at the
inception of this study, were based on the researcher’s background and professional experience.
The first assumption underlying the research was that high school coursework does not
necessarily provide adequate preparation for an individual entering post-secondary education.
This assumption held true according to the first finding. Although the overwhelming majority of
the participants in this study expressed that their transition to post-secondary education had been
successful, it was apparent in their perceptions that they had witnessed many examples of
students who did not have the same experience.

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The second assumption proposed that as a result of their high school experiences, there
was the potential for graduating students to have a less than realistic sense of their academic
abilities, which could lead to potential difficulties in post-secondary environments. This
assumption also turned out to be true based on the primary findings of this study. Again, the
participants’ perceptions indicate that they had observed many students who had felt optimistic
and ready for their post-secondary experience only to find out in short order that they were less
than adequately prepared. Recent research concerning brain development supports the
contention that there is every reason to expect this phenomenon to occur in the absence of an
experience at high school that does not develop the behavioural characteristics necessary for
success at post-secondary education. Managing their new found autonomy in post-secondary
environments without a good sense of self-efficacy seems to be a dangerous combination for
students.
The third assumption was that the preparation received in AP courses should have
contributed to a smooth and successful transition. In large part this assumption was found to be
true. There were one or two exceptions where the participants felt that they had not sufficiently
developed their study skills or a capacity to ask for help, both of which are critical for success.
Critics of the efficacy of AP would suggest that the majority of the participants would be
successful even if they had not taken AP. In this argument they point to the personal
characteristics of the students who apply for AP as being a key determinant in their success.
This argument appears to be an oversimplification of the situation since there were a number of
observations of students who were capable but who had lacked the AP preparation and as a result
had struggled during the transition. In the end it appears that the key ingredient in the
preparation at high school appears to be the rigour of the learning experience.

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Chapter Summary
This chapter has portrayed the experiences of a sample of university students who had
taken AP courses at high school. In summary, the prior discussion illustrates the multifaceted
and complex nature of the transition process from high school to post-secondary education. The
discussion reveals various factors that could impact the transition in either a positive or a
negative fashion. In the process, the analysis serves to illuminate possible dimensions of both
high school and post-secondary environments that could help to explain the high levels of
attrition that are currently experienced in post-secondary institutions.
The analysis involves the final stage of exploring the data accumulated in this study.
Data collection and analysis continued in an iterative process that involved continual refinement
of the structure of coding schemes used to make sense out of the large volume of material. From
the significant patterns that were observed, a framework was constructed around which the major
themes could be built. These major themes resemble icebergs in that a number of ideas and
concepts are associated with each theme. Each theme addresses a significant aspect of the
research findings. While the findings were explored in detail in the previous chapter, this
analysis attempts to determine what the findings mean in the context of the study.
A degree of caution is in order when considering the analysis of the findings covered in
this study. In the first place, the research sample was small, comprising interview data from only
twelve interviews. In defence of this limitation, the sample size provided sufficient data to
demonstrate data saturation. Secondly, the participants in this study had taken AP courses and so
the transition to post-secondary education is seen through the eyes of individuals who have
experienced AP programs. Thus the perception of those who graduated from high school
without taking AP courses is not directly presented. This limitation is tempered, however, by the

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knowledge that the participants had taken other high school courses as part of the necessary
graduation requirements from high school. As well, the recollections of the participants do allow
for some comparison as they were able to reflect on the differences between their AP courses and
regular courses. Similarly the recollections of the participants contain observations of the
transition to post-secondary education made by other students who may not have taken AP
courses. Finally, as has been discussed in the analysis, the model of AP course delivery is not
universal. As such, the findings represent the perceptions of the model chosen by the high
school at which the participants took their AP courses. For these reasons it must be stressed that
the implications that can be drawn are specific to the experiences of the sample group under
study, although the themes presented here do point the way for further analysis.
In all research the human factor brings necessary creativity but also preconceptions that
could influence the direction of the research. As such, being human is a researcher’s greatest
asset while at the same time it presents a fundamental liability. The standard objection of
qualitative research is that the analysis of the phenomenon is based on anecdotal evidence. I
recognise the subjective nature of the claims made regarding the meaning of the data and support
the validity of the argument of Seymour & Hewitt (1997) when they stated:
Accounts gathered and analyzed in a systematic manner allow the investigator to discover
things that cannot easily be discovered by any other means. In complex human affairs,
noticing the patterns in the independent amounts of expert witnesses plays the same role
as laboratory observations in the formation of hypotheses (p. 396).
Aside from the potential biases involved in acting as an instrument in the research, I
acknowledge possible additional bias in analyzing the findings because I have been involved in
the development and implementation of the AP program in question. To help minimize this

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limitation throughout the process of data collection and data analysis I engaged in ongoing
critical reflection through journaling and discussions with colleagues on both sides of the
transition. Deliberate attempts were made to understand the data from multiple perspectives and
yet the story told in the analysis is open to the possibility of a different interpretation.

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Conclusions
Introduction
The purpose of this case study was to explore the role played by Advanced Placement
courses in the transition of students from secondary to post-secondary education. The
conclusions from this study are derived from the findings to the research questions and
consequently address three main areas: a) making successful transitions to post-secondary
education; b) the development of self-efficacy and resilience; and c) the critical nature of the
learning environment in the transitional process. The following discussion is based on the main
findings that have been drawn from the research. At the conclusion of this chapter is a section
involving the researcher’s recommendations followed by a final reflection on this study.
Making Successful Transitions to Post-Secondary Education
The first major finding of the research is that all of the students in this study indicated
that they had made a smooth and successful transition from secondary to post-secondary
education. They attributed this smooth transition to the fact that the AP courses had prepared
them well for the challenges of post-secondary education, both in terms of academic preparation
but also in terms of developed self-efficacy and resilience. At the same time that the participants
were feeling secure in the transition process, they were aware that this was not the case for other
students. This comparison also confirmed for them the benefits of the preparation that they had
received. A conclusion that can be drawn from this finding is that high school students who are
seriously contemplating attending post-secondary institutions would benefit from the experience
of having taken some AP courses. The success of the participants in their AP courses at high
school indicates that the challenges of a first year post-secondary course are within the
capabilities of some high school students.

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Completion of high school courses may be necessary for entry to post-secondary
institutions but they are not necessarily sufficient. Regardless of the curriculum that is followed
in high school, if the courses do not contain sufficient elements of rigour then they can leave the
student vulnerable at the next level. In this regard, the transition from regular stream courses to
AP courses seems to require the students to recalibrate their understanding of the effort that is
necessary to be successful. Unfortunately for a lot of high school, this recalibration does not
occur until they arrive at post-secondary institutions. The rigor that is built into these courses
through the extended breadth and depth of content, together with the challenge of a
comprehensive externally set exam provide the opportunity for the students to develop authentic
self-efficacy beliefs and resilience, both of which are necessary in order to withstand the
challenges of post-secondary environments.
The Development of Self-Efficacy and Resilience
Of equal, if not greater, importance to academic competence in the integration of students
into post-secondary environments is the possession of authentic self-efficacy beliefs and
resilience. One of the struggles of post-secondary education for all students is how to deal with
their new found sense of autonomy. As well, they need to be able to withstand an academic
environment that can be hostile in comparison to the relative safety they enjoyed at high school.
In both instances, self-efficacy skills and resilience are essential. All of the participants
expressed that they felt that their preparation through AP courses had helped them build
resilience and authentic self-efficacy beliefs. A conclusion that can be drawn from this is that it
appears that the structure of AP courses, together with the model in which they are delivered,
provides the opportunity for the students to develop these attributes.

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A related conclusion is that programs that do not develop self-efficacy skills and build
resiliency ultimately leave the students vulnerable to academic failure. Progressing to university
with an overly optimistic set of expectations based on less than accurate information has been
shown to be a leading factor that contributes to attrition at university. Some students have not
had to work to develop coping strategies and as a result there is no inner strength for them to
draw on when they need it. As a consequence of their preparation they have difficulty meeting
the challenge of university. Ironically it appears that the successes that some students achieve at
high school lead to subsequent failure. Recognition of this phenomenon should be cause for
concern to all levels of education.
The Critical Nature of the Learning Environment in the Transitional Process
The third major finding of this study is perhaps the most critical since it underlies both of
the previous findings. It was apparent from the perceptions of the participants that the dynamics
of their learning environments had been, and continued to be critical to their success. Learning
environments are multi-dimensional and a key dynamic appears to be the development of a sense
of belonging to a learning community. The participants all experienced the presence, loss, and
reoccurrence of this sense of belonging in their journey. Initially it was built in high school only
to be lost in the first year of university. This loss of familiarity is a key element in understanding
why the transition to university is so hazardous. The participants expressed the importance of
being known as a person in an engaging learning environment. In contrast, they all expressed
some regret over the anonymity that occurs in large, impersonal university classes.
The importance of this component to the participants was illustrated by the number of
references to it both within and between transcripts. In the delivery model studied, for each AP
course taken, the students interact with one teacher over a period of three semesters. During this

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time the students and the instructor can develop a sense of familiarity and community. The close
connections that are forged between the students and also between the students and the instructor
are very important. As John stated:
“The instructor was very good about getting to know all of us. We were treated as a
group. We all got to know each other and got to know the instructor.” Being validated as
an individual is a powerful motivator.
In comparison, there is a great potential for anonymity in first year post-secondary
classes, which are often large and impersonal. This can be very stressful for a student who is
used to a more familiar learning environment at high school. Perhaps this is why first year
courses appear to create the most problems. Once past this year, the classes dwindle in size and
the students can potentially recapture that feeling of familiarity which nurtured them in high
school and which they lost when coming to their post-secondary institution.
Perhaps the strongest safeguard against this loss of familiarity at post-secondary
institutions is to have developed resiliency. This resilient attitude, coupled with a healthy set of
self-efficacy skills and beliefs based on accurate information, should go a long way towards
helping the students navigate through this challenging period. It is perhaps a sad commentary
that students might need to have developed strategies that enable them to not take as a personal
attack the displays of indifference exhibited by faculty as part of the entrenched weed-out
objectives of some faculties (Seymour & Hewitt, 1997, p. 394). Post-secondary institutions
should also look for solutions to this problem. Providing more supports for first year students,
together with altering delivery methods for courses could be examined. Weaver and Jiang (2005,
p.572) suggest that: “large classes foster anonymity, enable students to seat themselves at the
periphery of the classroom, and thereby facilitate the strategic withdrawal of the majority”. At

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the same time, it is well documented that students who actively participate in the learning
process learn more than those that do not (ibid, p. 570). Learning situations that recognise the
power of connection and community should be developed and encouraged.
The conclusion is that the dynamics of the learning environment can determine the
success or failure of the students. Large impersonal classes allow the strategic withdrawal for
substantial numbers of students. At the same time as the students arrive in these largely
impersonal settings, they are still at a developmental stage in which they would benefit from
interventions from efficacious, caring adults. An environment that fosters disengagement and
does not acknowledge that the students are still in a developmental stage, coupled with the
inability of the students to handle their new found autonomy creates a recipe for disaster for
many. The importance of this aspect cannot be overstated. Both the knowledge and the people
components of the learning environment are equally important and need to be considered.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are based on the findings, analysis and conclusions of
this study. There are multiple factors operating in a dynamic landscape that influence the
transition from secondary to post-secondary education. Although there are similarities in these
landscapes they are also unique. As such, the recommendations offered here should be
considered as starting points in the discussion concerning these transitions. The
recommendations at this stage are general and are for: (a) secondary and post-secondary
institutions, and (b) for further research.
Recommendations for secondary and post-secondary institutions. One of the
participants suggested that high schools should become a little more like university and that
universities should become a little more like high school. It is an interesting observation and one

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that reflects that there are concerns that need to be addressed on both sides of the transition.
Another participant felt that it would be easier to make the necessary changes at high school
since it was difficult to do at university. In these two positions we can see what is perhaps
necessary and also the difficulty in effecting change. Adopting the position that the problem is
external to either side of the transition will not lead to necessary and effective changes.
1. Both secondary and post-secondary institutions.should employ strategies to prevent
alienation and strategic withdrawal through anonymity in the classroom and which
develop a sense of belonging to a learning community.
2. Secondary and post-secondary institutions should evaluate the expertise of their
instructors in building a student centered learning environment. Professional development
of all instructors should include an understanding of human development. Evidence of
improved pedagogical practices and improved retention of students could be tied to
reward and promotion at post-secondary institutions.and should be considered an ongoing
part of teacher professional development at both secondary and post-secondary levels of
education.
3. It would be helpful if secondary and post-secondary institutions developed joint
committees to foster understanding between the two levels of education. Promoting
articulation and partnership in the common goal of effective transition to university needs
to be encouraged. An “us versus them” mentality does not solve the problem.
4. Post-secondary institutions should be encouraged to move away from the philosophy and
practice of “selection” to the philosophy and practice of “teaching”.
5. High schools need to recognise the potential for poor articulation between high school
course experiences and the subsequent course experiences at post-secondary institutions.

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Programs that promote articulation in terms of content but also in terms of developing the
personal efficacy beliefs and resilience need to be encouraged. Authentic self-efficacy
beliefs require the student to engage in a sustained effort to overcome adversity. Real
challenges resembling those that will be encountered at post-secondary institutions should
be incorporated into high school programmes.
Recommendations for further research. Based on the limitations of this study, and to
correct for researcher bias, further research needs to be carried out to create a larger data base of
information in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the transition to university.
At this point qualitative research is needed in order to hear the voices of the individuals involved.
1. It would be helpful to talk to students who have not taken AP courses.
2. As well, students from schools of different sizes and locations should be studied for
comparison.
3. The different models of delivery for AP courses need to be studied by examining the
perceptions of students involved in the same program in other schools in the province.
4. The dynamics of learning environments in general should be studied. The concepts of
anonymity, strategic withdrawal, familiarity, and engagement are critical. Knowledge of
constructs that promote engaging learning communities could provide valuable
information for both secondary and post-secondary institutions.
5. The development of authentic self-efficacy beliefs is of critical importance. Knowledge
of the development of these beliefs in current high school settings is necessary.
6. Conversely, conditions that lead to unreasonable optimism in high school graduates need
to be explored.

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7. Although the sample was limited, the participants generally displayed strong future
orientations as well as being well engaged in the present. The work of Zimbardo & Boyd
(2008) seems to be supported in the findings of the current research. Given the potential
importance of this construct, it should be researched in larger high school populations.
Final Comments
Transitions in life are not easily negotiated. For graduating students from high school,
the transition to post-secondary education is an important stage in their life trajectory. There is
ample evidence to suggest that the transition is not easy. The study has highlighted factors that
have been important to a sample of students who have made a successful transition to postsecondary education . By building on our understanding of what works, it is my belief that
models of success can be developed. In turn, these research-based models could be used to
inform structures and processes in both high school and post-secondary environments that could
be developed to improve this transition. The end result could be a reduction in attrition rates at
post-secondary institutions.along with the attendant loss of human capital.
The study was exploratory in nature and to this end the questions were open ended rather
than prescriptive. This allowed the participants to explore their journey from secondary to postsecondary education.without constraints imposed by the preconceptions of the researcher.
During the research, additional themes emerged beyond the original scope of the research and in
the final analysis the research has presented as many new questions as it has answered. AP
courses appear to provide a solid platform for students as they transition from secondary to postsecondary education. The availability of these courses, however, is not universal which creates a
potential point of conflict. In a post-secondary environment in which curve grade marking is
used, theoretically there are only a certain number of high grades that are available. The

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presence of students who have taken AP courses and who potentially have a head start increases
the competition for those grades. It is possible that students who have not had access to AP
courses are therefore placed at a disadvantage. Should this be of concern and what are the
possible solutions?
Creating a level playing field could occur in two ways. In the first instance, AP courses
could be deleted from the regular high school program and yet the research has shown that
students are more than capable of achieving good results in these programs. In addition, the
research suggests that they also benefit from their AP experiences once they reach postsecondary institutions. Given the concerns expressed over the current rates of attrition at postsecondary institutions this does not seem an appropriate response. The other alternative is to
develop AP programs in more high schools. There is evidence in this research of students who
are not currently being challenged in their high school experiences. This lack of challenge has
repercussions upon entry to post-secondary institutes. In the event that AP preparation becomes
available to more students, it creates the potential of larger numbers of capable students
competing for the same few superior grades. Currently there is evidence to suggest that postsecondary institutes regularly weed out capable students. In the event that larger numbers of
competent students show up in classes, the current practices of some faculties would result in
losing students of an even higher calibre. The findings from this research would suggest that not
all post-secondary faculties are prepared for this challenge.

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Appendix A
Letter of Invitation to Participate
Would You Be Interested In Sharing Your Experiences
Of Advanced Placement Programming
Project Title: Advanced Placement Programming and the Transition from High School to
University
Researcher: Graham Avon
Supervisor: Prof. Cam Symons, Faculty of Education, Brandon University,
symonsc@brandonu.ca
Dear _______________________________(Name of Potential Participant)
I am a Masters student at Brandon University and am writing to invite you to participate in an
important research study that I will be conducting for my Master’s Thesis. The focus of the
research will be Advanced Placement Programming and the impact that this programming has
had on the participants.
As one of the original participants in the AP program, you have in your possession a wealth of
information contained in your experiences that I am hoping you would be willing to share with
others. Generally, I am interested to know what impact involvement in Advanced Placement
courses has had on you. Specifically, I am interested in the impact at three points in time while
you were making your way through High School, during your transition year to
University/College, and the present time.
If you agree to participate in this study I would like to interview you once for approximately 60
minutes. The interview will be in person or over the phone at a time that is mutually agreeable. I
will send you a full list of questions one week prior to the interview by email so that you can
look them over before we meet. This will give you a chance to collect your thoughts and ask me
questions before we begin.
Your participation is voluntary and you can withdraw from the study at any time or refuse to
answer any or all questions without penalty. Simply call me or send me an e-mail stating your
request to withdraw based on the contact information found on this letter. Upon notification, all
your data will be destroyed.
There is little risk involved in participating in this research and significant steps have been taken
in the design of the study to ensure your complete anonymity.
The information gathered in this project will be used in the completion of my thesis and
subsequent publications. These publications would include the thesis itself and a paper in the
Brandon University Journal of Graduate Studies in Education, or other professional journals.

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In all cases, every effort will be made to maintain your confidentiality. The interview session
will be audio taped for later transcription and analysis by myself. All transcripts and audiotapes
will be kept in a locked filing cabinet in my office in my home, and will only be seen by myself,
and my research advisor Dr. Cam Symons. All electronic files will be stored on password
protected files on my computer. In all of the transcripts and subsequent analysis, pseudonyms
will be used to protect your identity. Any part of a transcript which might identify you will be
reworded or removed and all identification will be stripped from the dissemination of the
findings. You will be provided with the opportunity to check your transcript from the interview
in order to add, delete, or change material and to omit identifying remarks. These transcripts will
have been prepared by the researcher.
At the conclusion of the research (December 2011), all transcripts and audiotapes will be kept in
the same secure location for a period of five years. At the end of this time all data will be
destroyed.
This research has been approved by the Brandon University Research Ethics Committee. If you
have any general concerns or complaints about this project you may contact Dr. Cam Symons in
the Faculty of Education (726-9656). In addition, if you have any ethical concerns regarding the
project you may contact the Brandon University Research Ethics Committee (727-7445).
If you would be interested in participating, and want more information regarding the study,
please contact:
Graham Avon
401 22nd St. Brandon
Manitoba
R7B 1S1
Tel: (204) 727-2376
E-mail: gca@wcgwave.ca
I look forward to hearing from you.
Sincerely,
Graham Avon

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Appendix B
Letter of Consent
Thesis Title: Advanced Placement Programming and the Transition from High School to
University
Researcher: Graham Avon
Sponsoring Institution: BrandonUniversity
Thesis Supervisor: Prof. Cam Symons, Faculty of Education, BrandonUniversity,
symonsc@brandonu.ca
Date: xxxxx
Dear _____________________ (Name of Potential Participant)
I am writing to you to invite you to take part in research that I will be conducting. I am a Masters
student at Brandon University, working on my thesis entitled, “Advanced Placement
Programming and the Transition from High School to University”. The purpose of the study is
to examine your perceptions of the impact of the Advanced Placement program on your
academic success and life trajectory. The project has been approved by the Brandon University
Research Ethics Committee. In order to collect data for the project I would like to interview ten
students who have graduated from Vincent Massey High School within the last three years.
Below is a Research Project Consent Form that provides the information for participants about
the purpose of the study, the methods of data collection, and the strategies to ensure
confidentiality.
Your signature on the Participant’s Consent Form will authorize your approval for participation
in this study and your approval for the interviews to be recorded. Thank you for your time and
consideration of this request.
Dear Study Participant:
This consent form, a copy of which will be left with you for your records and reference, is only
part of the process of informed consent. It should give you the basic idea of what the research is
about and what your participation will involve. If you would like more detail about something
mentioned here, or information not included here, you should feel free to ask. Please take the
time to read this carefully and to understand any accompanying information.
Purpose of the Research:
This study will examine the impact of participation in Advanced Placement Programming on
recent graduates of Vincent Massey High School. Specifically, the research will look at the role
that Advanced Placement programming has had at three points in time: the High School Years,
the transition year from High School to University/College, and the Present.

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Procedures to be Used:
If you agree to participate in this study, you will be interviewed once for approximately 60
minutes. The interview will occur either in person or by phone at a time that will be arranged at
your convenience. In the interview session, I will ask open-ended questions in a semi-structured
format to gain insight into the impact that Advanced Placement Programming has had and may
continue to have on you. We will examine broad questions such as, “Did AP programming
facilitate your path through High School? Did it have an impact on your transition to University
or College? Does it continue to have an impact on you at this point in time?” The research is not
only focussed on the content of the courses that you took but the whole experience, such as the
classroom environment, the homework, the AP exams, and individual skills you may have
developed. You will be provided with the interview questions one week prior to the interview
either through email or regular mail, so that you may collect your thoughts concerning the
questions before the actual interview. In this way you can ask for clarification of any questions
before we start.
Risk/Benefits of Participants
There is little risk involved in participating in this research and significant steps have been taken
in the design of the study to ensure your complete anonymity. The information gathered in this
study will be used in the completion of my thesis and subsequent publications. These
publications would include the thesis itself and a paper in the Brandon University Journal of
Graduate Studies in Education and other professional journals.
Recording Interviews and Confidentiality:
In all cases, every effort will be made to maintain confidentiality of the participants. The
individual interviews sessions will be audio taped for later transcription and analysis by the
researcher. All transcripts and audiotapes will be kept in a locked filing cabinet in my office in
my home, and will only be seen by myself and my research advisor, Dr. Cam Symons. All
electronic files will be stored on password protected files on my computer. In all of the
recordings, pseudonyms will be used to protect the identities of all participants. Any part of a
transcript which might identify a participant will be reworded or removed (see additional note
below on feedback), and all identification will be stripped from the dissemination of the findings.
At the conclusion of the research (December 2011), all transcripts and audiotapes will be
maintained for a period of five years in the same secure location. At the end of this time all data
will be destroyed. You can withdraw from the study at any time or refuse to answer any or all
questions without penalty. Simply call me or send me an e-mail me stating your request to
withdraw based on the contact information found on this consent form. Upon notification, all
your data will be destroyed.
Feedback About The Study:
Participants will be given the opportunity to check transcripts and add/delete or augment
information given. It will take participants roughly 20-30 minutes to review their transcripts.
Participants will be given two weeks to review transcripts/findings. If I, as the researcher, do not
hear from you after two weeks, I will assume that you are satisfied with the contents of the
transcripts/findings. When this research project is over, individual participants can receive a
summary of the results of the study. All that is required is that you sign at the bottom of this
consent form with your contact information.
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Credit Or Remuneration:
No credit or remuneration will be available for your participation.
Your signature on this form indicates that you have understood to your satisfaction the
information regarding your participation in the research project and agree to participate as a
subject. In no way does this waive your legal rights or release the researcher, sponsors, or
involved institutions from their legal and professional responsibilities. You are free to withdraw
from the study at any time, and/or refrain from answering any questions you prefer to omit,
without prejudice or consequence. In order to do so, simply contact me at the information listed
below. Your continued participation should be as informed as your initial consent, so you should
feel free to ask for clarification or new information throughout your participation. In doing so,
please contact me:
Principal Researcher: Graham Avon
Phone: 727-2376
E-mail: gca@wcgwave.ca
OR
Research Supervisor: Prof Cam Symons
Phone: 727-9656
E-mail: symonsc@brandonu.ca
This research has been approved by the Brandon University Research Ethics Committee. If you
have any general concerns or complaints about this project you may contact any of the abovenamed persons. In addition, if you have any ethical concerns regarding the project you may
contact the Brandon University Research Ethics Committee (727-7445). A copy of this consent
form has been given to you to keep for your records and reference.
Thank you for your time and consideration.
Sincerely,
Graham Avon

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GENERAL CONSENT
Participant’s Signature _________________

Date__________

Researcher’s Signature _________________

Date__________

CONSENT TO RECORD INTERVIEW
Participant’s Signature__________________

Date__________

Researcher’s Signature__________________

Date__________

I would like to receive a summary copy of the results of this study. To that end, my contact
email for receipt of an electronic copy is included below.
Email Address: ______________________

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Appendix C
Interview Protocol
Narrative of first semi-structured interview:
The primary objective of the questions I will ask you today will be aimed at having you consider
the impact of your decision to undertake Advanced Placement courses at High School.
Specifically, I am interested in the impact of that decision during your years at High School,
during the transition year from High School to University, and lastly the impact at this present
moment in time. As such I will be asking you questions related to your life during these three
periods of time. I would like to capture as much detail as possible and want to not only look at
the academic impact but also the overall impact of the program on you.
High School
A) Please tell me about your initial decision to take Advanced Placement courses. Why
did you make the decision to enroll in AP courses?
B) What were your expectations or what were you hoping for when you decided to take
these courses? You might consider your expectations related to the content of the
courses, the classroom environment, the homework, the AP exams, and individual
skills you thought you would develop.
C) What were your feelings during the first few weeks of the courses? Why did you feel
this way?
D) Could you reflect on any changes in those feelings that you may have experienced as
time went by.
E) Can you comment on whether or not being involved in these courses was helpful in
your journey through high school. Again, you might reflect on course content,
classroom environment, homework, AP exams, and individual skills you developed.
F) Do you think these courses had an impact on your developing self-image in high
school? If so how?
The Transition Year to University or College
A) Please tell me how you felt about your transition from high school to
University/College
B) During the first few weeks, what were your feelings about your abilities to succeed in
this new environment?
C) As time went by, did you reflect on how well the Advanced Placement courses
prepared you for your transition to University/College i.e. were you seeing any
benefits or drawbacks?
D) At the time that you were taking AP courses at high school you were going on the
belief that they may be helpful at a later point in time. Have you had to reconsider
these beliefs or had them reinforced?
E) If you consider your developing self-image during this time, what impact was your
decision to take these courses having on you?
The Present Time
A) Even though you graduated from High School three or four years ago do you feel that
your decision to take AP courses is still having an impact on the decisions you make
on your life’s trajectory? If so, in what way?

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B) If you could make recommendations for improving the AP Program for students,
what would they be?

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